"To dispose of the prisoners": The Japanese executions of American air-crew at Fukuoka, Japan, during 1945

Pacific Historical Review

Volumn 66, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 469-499

  Francis, Timothy Lang ^a  

^a US Naval Historical Center   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 5844421412     PISSN: 00308684     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3642234     Document Type: Review

References (171)

1. I am grateful for the comments and suggestions of Barton J. Bernstein, Marlene J. Mayo, and Glenn E. Helm. The paper is dedicated to the memory of my uncle, Frederick Allen Stearns, killed at Fukuoka, Kyushu, Japan, on either August 10 or 15, 1945.
2. The main trial record is found in U.S. v Isamu Yokoyama et alia, file 36-528-1, War Crimes Branch, Case Files, 1944-49, Records of the Office of the Judge Advocate General (Army), Record Group 153, National Archives, Washington, D.C. For specifics on the August 15 executions, see "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," July 17, 1949, U.S. v Kiyohara Tomomori et alia, file 36-533-1, ibid, (hereafter cited as "Review"), 33; "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Suekatsu Matsuki, file 36-529-1, ibid., 1-4; "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Teruo Akamine, file 36-528-1, ibid., 1-5; and "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Noboru Hashiyama, file 36-530-1, ibid., 1-4.
3. The main trial record is found in U.S. v Isamu Yokoyama et alia, file 36-528-1, War Crimes Branch, Case Files, 1944-49, Records of the Office of the Judge Advocate General (Army), Record Group 153, National Archives, Washington, D.C. For specifics on the August 15 executions, see "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," July 17, 1949, U.S. v Kiyohara Tomomori et alia, file 36-533-1, ibid, (hereafter cited as "Review"), 33; "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Suekatsu Matsuki, file 36-529-1, ibid., 1-4; "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Teruo Akamine, file 36-528-1, ibid., 1-5; and "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Noboru Hashiyama, file 36-530-1, ibid., 1-4.
4. The main trial record is found in U.S. v Isamu Yokoyama et alia, file 36-528-1, War Crimes Branch, Case Files, 1944-49, Records of the Office of the Judge Advocate General (Army), Record Group 153, National Archives, Washington, D.C. For specifics on the August 15 executions, see "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," July 17, 1949, U.S. v Kiyohara Tomomori et alia, file 36-533-1, ibid, (hereafter cited as "Review"), 33; "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Suekatsu Matsuki, file 36-529-1, ibid., 1-4; "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Teruo Akamine, file 36-528-1, ibid., 1-5; and "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Noboru Hashiyama, file 36-530-1, ibid., 1-4.
5. The main trial record is found in U.S. v Isamu Yokoyama et alia, file 36-528-1, War Crimes Branch, Case Files, 1944-49, Records of the Office of the Judge Advocate General (Army), Record Group 153, National Archives, Washington, D.C. For specifics on the August 15 executions, see "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," July 17, 1949, U.S. v Kiyohara Tomomori et alia, file 36-533-1, ibid, (hereafter cited as "Review"), 33; "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Suekatsu Matsuki, file 36-529-1, ibid., 1-4; "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Teruo Akamine, file 36-528-1, ibid., 1-5; and "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Noboru Hashiyama, file 36-530-1, ibid., 1-4.
6. The main trial record is found in U.S. v Isamu Yokoyama et alia, file 36-528-1, War Crimes Branch, Case Files, 1944-49, Records of the Office of the Judge Advocate General (Army), Record Group 153, National Archives, Washington, D.C. For specifics on the August 15 executions, see "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," July 17, 1949, U.S. v Kiyohara Tomomori et alia, file 36-533-1, ibid, (hereafter cited as "Review"), 33; "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Suekatsu Matsuki, file 36-529-1, ibid., 1-4; "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Teruo Akamine, file 36-528-1, ibid., 1-5; and "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Noboru Hashiyama, file 36-530-1, ibid., 1-4.
7. The main trial record is found in U.S. v Isamu Yokoyama et alia, file 36-528-1, War Crimes Branch, Case Files, 1944-49, Records of the Office of the Judge Advocate General (Army), Record Group 153, National Archives, Washington, D.C. For specifics on the August 15 executions, see "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," July 17, 1949, U.S. v Kiyohara Tomomori et alia, file 36-533-1, ibid, (hereafter cited as "Review"), 33; "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Suekatsu Matsuki, file 36-529-1, ibid., 1-4; "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Teruo Akamine, file 36-528-1, ibid., 1-5; and "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Noboru Hashiyama, file 36-530-1, ibid., 1-4.
8. The main trial record is found in U.S. v Isamu Yokoyama et alia, file 36-528-1, War Crimes Branch, Case Files, 1944-49, Records of the Office of the Judge Advocate General (Army), Record Group 153, National Archives, Washington, D.C. For specifics on the August 15 executions, see "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," July 17, 1949, U.S. v Kiyohara Tomomori et alia, file 36-533-1, ibid, (hereafter cited as "Review"), 33; "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Suekatsu Matsuki, file 36-529-1, ibid., 1-4; "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Teruo Akamine, file 36-528-1, ibid., 1-5; and "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Noboru Hashiyama, file 36-530-1, ibid., 1-4.
9. The main trial record is found in U.S. v Isamu Yokoyama et alia, file 36-528-1, War Crimes Branch, Case Files, 1944-49, Records of the Office of the Judge Advocate General (Army), Record Group 153, National Archives, Washington, D.C. For specifics on the August 15 executions, see "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," July 17, 1949, U.S. v Kiyohara Tomomori et alia, file 36-533-1, ibid, (hereafter cited as "Review"), 33; "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Suekatsu Matsuki, file 36-529-1, ibid., 1-4; "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Teruo Akamine, file 36-528-1, ibid., 1-5; and "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Noboru Hashiyama, file 36-530-1, ibid., 1-4.
10. The main trial record is found in U.S. v Isamu Yokoyama et alia, file 36-528-1, War Crimes Branch, Case Files, 1944-49, Records of the Office of the Judge Advocate General (Army), Record Group 153, National Archives, Washington, D.C. For specifics on the August 15 executions, see "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," July 17, 1949, U.S. v Kiyohara Tomomori et alia, file 36-533-1, ibid, (hereafter cited as "Review"), 33; "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Suekatsu Matsuki, file 36-529-1, ibid., 1-4; "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Teruo Akamine, file 36-528-1, ibid., 1-5; and "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Noboru Hashiyama, file 36-530-1, ibid., 1-4.
11. For an excellent examination of Japanese treatment of POWs on a larger scale, see Charles G. Roland, "Allied POWs, Japanese Captors and the Geneva Convention," War & Society, IX (1991), 83-101.
12. C. Sleeman and S. Silkin, eds., The Double Tenth Trial (London, 1951), xiv. In August and September 1945, many impromptu trials took place, leading to the widespread execution of Japanese soldiers and civilians in China, Korea, and Indo-China. See the film Tokyo Saiban, vol. 1 of 2 (Tokyo, 1983).
13. C. Sleeman and S. Silkin, eds., The Double Tenth Trial (London, 1951), xiv. In August and September 1945, many impromptu trials took place, leading to the widespread execution of Japanese soldiers and civilians in China, Korea, and Indo-China. See the film Tokyo Saiban, vol. 1 of 2 (Tokyo, 1983).
14. Bradley Smith, The American Road to Nuremberg: The Documentary Record (Stanford, Calif., 1982), 209-210. For a study of the events leading up to the trials, see Bradley Smith, The Road to Nuremberg (New York, 1981).
15. Bradley Smith, The American Road to Nuremberg: The Documentary Record (Stanford, Calif., 1982), 209-210. For a study of the events leading up to the trials, see Bradley Smith, The Road to Nuremberg (New York, 1981).
16. Lesser military trials ranged from Pacific Islands under U.S. and Australian control, Burma and Singapore under British control, and Indonesia under Dutch control. Military trials by the Soviets took place in Manchuria, while the Nationalists conducted trials throughout mainland China. U.S. military courts in Japan and the Philippines tried other war criminals. See Philip R. Piccigallo, The Japanese on Trial: Allied War Crimes Operations in the East, 1945-1951 (Austin, Tex., 1979).
17. Quote of Prosecutor Joseph B. Keenan found in the film Tokyo Saiban, vol. 1. For the records and historiography of the Tokyo trial and the related issue of war crimes and international law, see C. Hosoya, N. Ando, Y. Onuma, and R. Minear, eds., The. Tokyo War Crimes Trial: An International Symposium (Tokyo, 1986); R. John Pritchard and Sonia Magbanau Zaide, eds., The Tokyo War Crimes Trial: The Complete Transcripts of the Proceedings of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (New York, 1981); Richard Minear, Victor's Justice: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial (Princeton, N.J., 1971); B. V. A. Roling and C. F. Ruter, eds., The Tokyo Judgment: The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (Amsterdam, 1977); Radhabinod Pal, International Military Tribunal for the Far East, Dissentient Judgment (Calcutta, 1953), hereafter cited as Judgment; A. Frank Reel, The Case of General Yamashita (Chicago, 1949); Richard Lael, The Yamashita Precedent: War Crimes and Command Responsibility (Wilmington, Del., 1982). A work dealing with later war crimes but similar themes is Telford Taylor, Nuremberg and Vietnam: An American Tragedy (Chicago, 1970).
18. Quote of Prosecutor Joseph B. Keenan found in the film Tokyo Saiban, vol. 1. For the records and historiography of the Tokyo trial and the related issue of war crimes and international law, see C. Hosoya, N. Ando, Y. Onuma, and R. Minear, eds., The. Tokyo War Crimes Trial: An International Symposium (Tokyo, 1986); R. John Pritchard and Sonia Magbanau Zaide, eds., The Tokyo War Crimes Trial: The Complete Transcripts of the Proceedings of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (New York, 1981); Richard Minear, Victor's Justice: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial (Princeton, N.J., 1971); B. V. A. Roling and C. F. Ruter, eds., The Tokyo Judgment: The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (Amsterdam, 1977); Radhabinod Pal, International Military Tribunal for the Far East, Dissentient Judgment (Calcutta, 1953), hereafter cited as Judgment; A. Frank Reel, The Case of General Yamashita (Chicago, 1949); Richard Lael, The Yamashita Precedent: War Crimes and Command Responsibility (Wilmington, Del., 1982). A work dealing with later war crimes but similar themes is Telford Taylor, Nuremberg and Vietnam: An American Tragedy (Chicago, 1970).
19. Quote of Prosecutor Joseph B. Keenan found in the film Tokyo Saiban, vol. 1. For the records and historiography of the Tokyo trial and the related issue of war crimes and international law, see C. Hosoya, N. Ando, Y. Onuma, and R. Minear, eds., The. Tokyo War Crimes Trial: An International Symposium (Tokyo, 1986); R. John Pritchard and Sonia Magbanau Zaide, eds., The Tokyo War Crimes Trial: The Complete Transcripts of the Proceedings of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (New York, 1981); Richard Minear, Victor's Justice: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial (Princeton, N.J., 1971); B. V. A. Roling and C. F. Ruter, eds., The Tokyo Judgment: The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (Amsterdam, 1977); Radhabinod Pal, International Military Tribunal for the Far East, Dissentient Judgment (Calcutta, 1953), hereafter cited as Judgment; A. Frank Reel, The Case of General Yamashita (Chicago, 1949); Richard Lael, The Yamashita Precedent: War Crimes and Command Responsibility (Wilmington, Del., 1982). A work dealing with later war crimes but similar themes is Telford Taylor, Nuremberg and Vietnam: An American Tragedy (Chicago, 1970).
20. Quote of Prosecutor Joseph B. Keenan found in the film Tokyo Saiban, vol. 1. For the records and historiography of the Tokyo trial and the related issue of war crimes and international law, see C. Hosoya, N. Ando, Y. Onuma, and R. Minear, eds., The. Tokyo War Crimes Trial: An International Symposium (Tokyo, 1986); R. John Pritchard and Sonia Magbanau Zaide, eds., The Tokyo War Crimes Trial: The Complete Transcripts of the Proceedings of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (New York, 1981); Richard Minear, Victor's Justice: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial (Princeton, N.J., 1971); B. V. A. Roling and C. F. Ruter, eds., The Tokyo Judgment: The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (Amsterdam, 1977); Radhabinod Pal, International Military Tribunal for the Far East, Dissentient Judgment (Calcutta, 1953), hereafter cited as Judgment; A. Frank Reel, The Case of General Yamashita (Chicago, 1949); Richard Lael, The Yamashita Precedent: War Crimes and Command Responsibility (Wilmington, Del., 1982). A work dealing with later war crimes but similar themes is Telford Taylor, Nuremberg and Vietnam: An American Tragedy (Chicago, 1970).
21. Quote of Prosecutor Joseph B. Keenan found in the film Tokyo Saiban, vol. 1. For the records and historiography of the Tokyo trial and the related issue of war crimes and international law, see C. Hosoya, N. Ando, Y. Onuma, and R. Minear, eds., The. Tokyo War Crimes Trial: An International Symposium (Tokyo, 1986); R. John Pritchard and Sonia Magbanau Zaide, eds., The Tokyo War Crimes Trial: The Complete Transcripts of the Proceedings of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (New York, 1981); Richard Minear, Victor's Justice: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial (Princeton, N.J., 1971); B. V. A. Roling and C. F. Ruter, eds., The Tokyo Judgment: The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (Amsterdam, 1977); Radhabinod Pal, International Military Tribunal for the Far East, Dissentient Judgment (Calcutta, 1953), hereafter cited as Judgment; A. Frank Reel, The Case of General Yamashita (Chicago, 1949); Richard Lael, The Yamashita Precedent: War Crimes and Command Responsibility (Wilmington, Del., 1982). A work dealing with later war crimes but similar themes is Telford Taylor, Nuremberg and Vietnam: An American Tragedy (Chicago, 1970).
22. Quote of Prosecutor Joseph B. Keenan found in the film Tokyo Saiban, vol. 1. For the records and historiography of the Tokyo trial and the related issue of war crimes and international law, see C. Hosoya, N. Ando, Y. Onuma, and R. Minear, eds., The. Tokyo War Crimes Trial: An International Symposium (Tokyo, 1986); R. John Pritchard and Sonia Magbanau Zaide, eds., The Tokyo War Crimes Trial: The Complete Transcripts of the Proceedings of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (New York, 1981); Richard Minear, Victor's Justice: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial (Princeton, N.J., 1971); B. V. A. Roling and C. F. Ruter, eds., The Tokyo Judgment: The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (Amsterdam, 1977); Radhabinod Pal, International Military Tribunal for the Far East, Dissentient Judgment (Calcutta, 1953), hereafter cited as Judgment; A. Frank Reel, The Case of General Yamashita (Chicago, 1949); Richard Lael, The Yamashita Precedent: War Crimes and Command Responsibility (Wilmington, Del., 1982). A work dealing with later war crimes but similar themes is Telford Taylor, Nuremberg and Vietnam: An American Tragedy (Chicago, 1970).
23. Quote of Prosecutor Joseph B. Keenan found in the film Tokyo Saiban, vol. 1. For the records and historiography of the Tokyo trial and the related issue of war crimes and international law, see C. Hosoya, N. Ando, Y. Onuma, and R. Minear, eds., The. Tokyo War Crimes Trial: An International Symposium (Tokyo, 1986); R. John Pritchard and Sonia Magbanau Zaide, eds., The Tokyo War Crimes Trial: The Complete Transcripts of the Proceedings of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (New York, 1981); Richard Minear, Victor's Justice: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial (Princeton, N.J., 1971); B. V. A. Roling and C. F. Ruter, eds., The Tokyo Judgment: The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (Amsterdam, 1977); Radhabinod Pal, International Military Tribunal for the Far East, Dissentient Judgment (Calcutta, 1953), hereafter cited as Judgment; A. Frank Reel, The Case of General Yamashita (Chicago, 1949); Richard Lael, The Yamashita Precedent: War Crimes and Command Responsibility (Wilmington, Del., 1982). A work dealing with later war crimes but similar themes is Telford Taylor, Nuremberg and Vietnam: An American Tragedy (Chicago, 1970).
24. Quote of Prosecutor Joseph B. Keenan found in the film Tokyo Saiban, vol. 1. For the records and historiography of the Tokyo trial and the related issue of war crimes and international law, see C. Hosoya, N. Ando, Y. Onuma, and R. Minear, eds., The. Tokyo War Crimes Trial: An International Symposium (Tokyo, 1986); R. John Pritchard and Sonia Magbanau Zaide, eds., The Tokyo War Crimes Trial: The Complete Transcripts of the Proceedings of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (New York, 1981); Richard Minear, Victor's Justice: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial (Princeton, N.J., 1971); B. V. A. Roling and C. F. Ruter, eds., The Tokyo Judgment: The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (Amsterdam, 1977); Radhabinod Pal, International Military Tribunal for the Far East, Dissentient Judgment (Calcutta, 1953), hereafter cited as Judgment; A. Frank Reel, The Case of General Yamashita (Chicago, 1949); Richard Lael, The Yamashita Precedent: War Crimes and Command Responsibility (Wilmington, Del., 1982). A work dealing with later war crimes but similar themes is Telford Taylor, Nuremberg and Vietnam: An American Tragedy (Chicago, 1970).
25. Quote of Prosecutor Joseph B. Keenan found in the film Tokyo Saiban, vol. 1. For the records and historiography of the Tokyo trial and the related issue of war crimes and international law, see C. Hosoya, N. Ando, Y. Onuma, and R. Minear, eds., The. Tokyo War Crimes Trial: An International Symposium (Tokyo, 1986); R. John Pritchard and Sonia Magbanau Zaide, eds., The Tokyo War Crimes Trial: The Complete Transcripts of the Proceedings of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (New York, 1981); Richard Minear, Victor's Justice: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial (Princeton, N.J., 1971); B. V. A. Roling and C. F. Ruter, eds., The Tokyo Judgment: The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (Amsterdam, 1977); Radhabinod Pal, International Military Tribunal for the Far East, Dissentient Judgment (Calcutta, 1953), hereafter cited as Judgment; A. Frank Reel, The Case of General Yamashita (Chicago, 1949); Richard Lael, The Yamashita Precedent: War Crimes and Command Responsibility (Wilmington, Del., 1982). A work dealing with later war crimes but similar themes is Telford Taylor, Nuremberg and Vietnam: An American Tragedy (Chicago, 1970).
26. Quote of Prosecutor Joseph B. Keenan found in the film Tokyo Saiban, vol. 1. For the records and historiography of the Tokyo trial and the related issue of war crimes and international law, see C. Hosoya, N. Ando, Y. Onuma, and R. Minear, eds., The. Tokyo War Crimes Trial: An International Symposium (Tokyo, 1986); R. John Pritchard and Sonia Magbanau Zaide, eds., The Tokyo War Crimes Trial: The Complete Transcripts of the Proceedings of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (New York, 1981); Richard Minear, Victor's Justice: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial (Princeton, N.J., 1971); B. V. A. Roling and C. F. Ruter, eds., The Tokyo Judgment: The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (Amsterdam, 1977); Radhabinod Pal, International Military Tribunal for the Far East, Dissentient Judgment (Calcutta, 1953), hereafter cited as Judgment; A. Frank Reel, The Case of General Yamashita (Chicago, 1949); Richard Lael, The Yamashita Precedent: War Crimes and Command Responsibility (Wilmington, Del., 1982). A work dealing with later war crimes but similar themes is Telford Taylor, Nuremberg and Vietnam: An American Tragedy (Chicago, 1970).
27. These executions were examined in the Tokyo trial record and are incompletely, and sometimes incorrectly, mentioned in such disparate sources as John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York, 1986), 300; John W. Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire, 1936-1945 (New York, 1970), 852; and E. Bartlett Kerr, Surrender and Survival: The Experience of American POWs in the Pacific, 1941-1945 (New York, 1985), 267, 273, 295.
28. These executions were examined in the Tokyo trial record and are incompletely, and sometimes incorrectly, mentioned in such disparate sources as John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York, 1986), 300; John W. Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire, 1936-1945 (New York, 1970), 852; and E. Bartlett Kerr, Surrender and Survival: The Experience of American POWs in the Pacific, 1941-1945 (New York, 1985), 267, 273, 295.
29. These executions were examined in the Tokyo trial record and are incompletely, and sometimes incorrectly, mentioned in such disparate sources as John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York, 1986), 300; John W. Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire, 1936-1945 (New York, 1970), 852; and E. Bartlett Kerr, Surrender and Survival: The Experience of American POWs in the Pacific, 1941-1945 (New York, 1985), 267, 273, 295.
30. There is a growing literature that attempts to explain how and why such atrocities occur. See Omer Bartov, "The Conduct of War: Soldiers and the Barbarization of Warfare," The Journal of Modern History, LXIV Supplement (1992), 32-45; Geoffrey Parker, "The Etiquette of Atrocity: The More Things Change, the More They Stay the Same," Military History Quarterly, V (1993). Two other studies show the ease with which otherwise average soldiers can become callous murderers: Christopher R. Browning, Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Fi-nal Solution in Poland (New York, 1992) and Yuki Tanaka, Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II (Boulder, Colo., 1996).
31. There is a growing literature that attempts to explain how and why such atrocities occur. See Omer Bartov, "The Conduct of War: Soldiers and the Barbarization of Warfare," The Journal of Modern History, LXIV Supplement (1992), 32-45; Geoffrey Parker, "The Etiquette of Atrocity: The More Things Change, the More They Stay the Same," Military History Quarterly, V (1993). Two other studies show the ease with which otherwise average soldiers can become callous murderers: Christopher R. Browning, Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Fi-nal Solution in Poland (New York, 1992) and Yuki Tanaka, Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II (Boulder, Colo., 1996).
32. There is a growing literature that attempts to explain how and why such atrocities occur. See Omer Bartov, "The Conduct of War: Soldiers and the Barbarization of Warfare," The Journal of Modern History, LXIV Supplement (1992), 32-45; Geoffrey Parker, "The Etiquette of Atrocity: The More Things Change, the More They Stay the Same," Military History Quarterly, V (1993). Two other studies show the ease with which otherwise average soldiers can become callous murderers: Christopher R. Browning, Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Fi-nal Solution in Poland (New York, 1992) and Yuki Tanaka, Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II (Boulder, Colo., 1996).
33. There is a growing literature that attempts to explain how and why such atrocities occur. See Omer Bartov, "The Conduct of War: Soldiers and the Barbarization of Warfare," The Journal of Modern History, LXIV Supplement (1992), 32-45; Geoffrey Parker, "The Etiquette of Atrocity: The More Things Change, the More They Stay the Same," Military History Quarterly, V (1993). Two other studies show the ease with which otherwise average soldiers can become callous murderers: Christopher R. Browning, Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Fi-nal Solution in Poland (New York, 1992) and Yuki Tanaka, Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II (Boulder, Colo., 1996).
34. All quotes in this paper are either from depositions submitted by the defendants immediately preceding the 1949 trials or from the trial transcripts themselves. Apparently, no contemporary Japanese Army documentation describing the events at Fukuoka survived. Unlike the case of Nazi Germany, much evidence of wartime misdeeds was destroyed before Allied forces occupied Japan. See Arnold C. Brackman, The Other Nuremberg: The Untold Story of the Tokyo War Crimes Trials (New York, 1987), 40; Dower, War Without Mercy, 262.
35. All quotes in this paper are either from depositions submitted by the defendants immediately preceding the 1949 trials or from the trial transcripts themselves. Apparently, no contemporary Japanese Army documentation describing the events at Fukuoka survived. Unlike the case of Nazi Germany, much evidence of wartime misdeeds was destroyed before Allied forces occupied Japan. See Arnold C. Brackman, The Other Nuremberg: The Untold Story of the Tokyo War Crimes Trials (New York, 1987), 40; Dower, War Without Mercy, 262.
36. Kenneth P. Werrell, Blankets of Fire: U.S. Bombers over Japan during World War II (Washington, D.C., 1996), 124-128; Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Gate, eds., The Army Air Forces in World War II: The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 1945 (Chicago, 1953), 507-545. For a short summary of the bombing campaign against Japan, see ibid., 608-675, and United States Strategic Bombing Survey (Pacific War): Summary Report (Washington, D.C., 1946), 15-22.
37. Kenneth P. Werrell, Blankets of Fire: U.S. Bombers over Japan during World War II (Washington, D.C., 1996), 124-128; Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Gate, eds., The Army Air Forces in World War II: The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 1945 (Chicago, 1953), 507-545. For a short summary of the bombing campaign against Japan, see ibid., 608-675, and United States Strategic Bombing Survey (Pacific War): Summary Report (Washington, D.C., 1946), 15-22.
38. Kenneth P. Werrell, Blankets of Fire: U.S. Bombers over Japan during World War II (Washington, D.C., 1996), 124-128; Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Gate, eds., The Army Air Forces in World War II: The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 1945 (Chicago, 1953), 507-545. For a short summary of the bombing campaign against Japan, see ibid., 608-675, and United States Strategic Bombing Survey (Pacific War): Summary Report (Washington, D.C., 1946), 15-22.
39. Kenneth P. Werrell, Blankets of Fire: U.S. Bombers over Japan during World War II (Washington, D.C., 1996), 124-128; Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Gate, eds., The Army Air Forces in World War II: The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 1945 (Chicago, 1953), 507-545. For a short summary of the bombing campaign against Japan, see ibid., 608-675, and United States Strategic Bombing Survey (Pacific War): Summary Report (Washington, D.C., 1946), 15-22.
40. See Mission Report #293, #294, and #295, Twentieth Air Force, Records of the Office of the Commanding General, Records of the Army Air Forces (AAF), Record Group 18, National Archives, Washington, D.C. (hereafter cited as Mission Report).
41. See Mission Report #293, #294, and #295, Twentieth Air Force, Records of the Office of the Commanding General, Records of the Army Air Forces (AAF), Record Group 18, National Archives, Washington, D.C. (hereafter cited as Mission Report).
42. The M17s, fused to open and spread burning fuel at 5,000 feet, were designed to start fires over the whole area, while the M47s, with an impact fuse, were designed to intensify damage, spread debris, and discourage fire fighting. The fires, sucking in oxygen from the perimeter of the city, would then grow large enough to destroy the commercial, residential, and industrial sectors, killing large numbers of civilians in the process. Incendiary information can be found in FM3-6, Employment Characteristics of Air Chemical Weapons (Washington, D.C., 1946).
43. The crew was 1st Lt. James E. Hewitt, Pilot/Commander; 1st Lt. James W. Gothie, Bombardier; 2nd Lt. Wayne Whitley, Radar Officer; F/O Charles S. Appleby, Navigator; F/O Gerald E. Boleyn, Copilot; T/Sgt. William N. Andrews, Radio Operator; S/Sgt. Ben Thornton, Flight Engineer; Cpl. Robert J. Zancker, Central Fire Control; CpI. Frederick A. Stearns, Tailgunner; Cpl. Martin W. O'Brien, Jr., Side Gunner; and Cpl. Robert A. Sawdye, Gunner. The observer, Capt. Louis W. Nelson, was a veteran bombardier who had completed twenty-five missions in Europe and went on this flight to assist Gothie. See "Testimony of Darrell O. Does," enclosed in U.S. v Tomomari.
44. See Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in World War II, 675; Michael Sherry, The Rise of American Air Power: The Creation of Armageddon (New Haven, Conn., 1987), 306-316, and letter from Frederick A. Stearns to home, July 10, 1945, in author's possession. For an overall assessment, see Werrel, Blankets of Fire, 224-241.
45. See Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in World War II, 675; Michael Sherry, The Rise of American Air Power: The Creation of Armageddon (New Haven, Conn., 1987), 306-316, and letter from Frederick A. Stearns to home, July 10, 1945, in author's possession. For an overall assessment, see Werrel, Blankets of Fire, 224-241.
46. See Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in World War II, 675; Michael Sherry, The Rise of American Air Power: The Creation of Armageddon (New Haven, Conn., 1987), 306-316, and letter from Frederick A. Stearns to home, July 10, 1945, in author's possession. For an overall assessment, see Werrel, Blankets of Fire, 224-241.
47. According to mission records, the planes took off between 0730 and 0839 Zebra time (5:30-6:39 P.M. local time). Time in official reports is given in Zulu or Zebra (suffix Z for zero) time, which equals Greenwich Mean Time. It is used by government and military forces to keep track of operations that occur in multiple time zones. Converting to local time involves adding or subtracting hours for time zones. Guam is ten zones ahead of Greenwich, so 1730-1839 Z becomes 5:30-6:39 P.M. local civilian time. When the bombers entered Japanese airspace, an hour was subtracted for the Tokyo time zone.
48. The "glorified gas station" is mentioned in a letter from Stearns to home, July 16, 1945, in author's possession.
49. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in World War II, 675; Werrel, Blankets of Fire, figure 3, 206-208.
50. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in World War II, 675; Werrel, Blankets of Fire, figure 3, 206-208.
51. For conflicting statements on time, fireballs, and aircraft position, see Missing Aircrew Report #14798 (Microfiche 5372), Records of the American Graves Registration Service (AGRS), Records of the Office of the Quartermaster General (OQMG), Record Group 92, National Archives, Washington, D.C. For the glowing fireball mystery, see Werrell, Blankets of Firt, 181-182.
52. Letters from Maj. Gen. Edward F. Witsell, Adjutant General of the Army, War Department, to Gertrude B. Stearns, in author's possession.
53. Six of the crew managed to parachute to earth. These were Hewitt, Appleby, Whitely, Thornton, Stearns, and Nelson. See "Opinion of the Board of Review," Feb. 6, 1950, 76m-n, enclosed in U.S. v Yokayama (hereafter cited as "Opinion").
54. Six of the crew managed to parachute to earth. These were Hewitt, Appleby, Whitely, Thornton, Stearns, and Nelson. See "Opinion of the Board of Review," Feb. 6, 1950, 76m-n, enclosed in U.S. v Yokayama (hereafter cited as "Opinion").
55. Western Army Headquarters responsibilities included all of Kyushu and south to 30° N, west to include the Tsushima, Iki, and Goto Islands, and north to include Toyoura-gun, Yamaguchi-ken, and Honshu. The plane crashed at 33° 16′ N by 130° 42′ E. See "Intelligence Briefing," 28, enclosed in U.S. v Isamu.
56. See Dower, War Without Mercy, 4.
57. Craig M. Cameron, American Samurai: Myth, Imagination, and the Conduct of Battle in the First Marine Division, 1941-1951 (New York, 1994).
58. For a more detailed analysis, see Dower, War Without Mercy, 4, 205, 216, 232-233, 247, 259, and see 300 for the escalation of violence after July 1944. For additional analysis of cultural conflict, see Theodore Friend, The Blue-Eyed Enemy: Japan Against the West in Java and Luzon, 1942-1945 (Princeton, N.J., 1988) and Mark Peattie, Ishiwara Kanji and Japan's Confrontation with the West (Princeton, N.J., 1966).
59. For a more detailed analysis, see Dower, War Without Mercy, 4, 205, 216, 232-233, 247, 259, and see 300 for the escalation of violence after July 1944. For additional analysis of cultural conflict, see Theodore Friend, The Blue-Eyed Enemy: Japan Against the West in Java and Luzon, 1942-1945 (Princeton, N.J., 1988) and Mark Peattie, Ishiwara Kanji and Japan's Confrontation with the West (Princeton, N.J., 1966).
60. For a more detailed analysis, see Dower, War Without Mercy, 4, 205, 216, 232-233, 247, 259, and see 300 for the escalation of violence after July 1944. For additional analysis of cultural conflict, see Theodore Friend, The Blue-Eyed Enemy: Japan Against the West in Java and Luzon, 1942-1945 (Princeton, N.J., 1988) and Mark Peattie, Ishiwara Kanji and Japan's Confrontation with the West (Princeton, N.J., 1966).
61. Shunsuke Tsurumi, An Intellectual History of Wartime Japan, 1931-1945 (London, 1986), 75-84.
62. Barton J. Bernstein, "Understanding the Atomic Bomb and the Japanese Surrender: Missed Opportunities, Little-Known Near Disasters, and Modern Memory," Diplomatic History, XIX (1995), 227-273.
63. Bernstein, "Understanding the Atomic Bomb," 227-273.
64. Pal, Judgment, 1031.
65. Bernstein, "Understanding the Atomic Bomb," 251.
66. Kerr, Surrender and Survival, 31. For a summary of the philosophical issues surrounding the Japanese treatment of prisoners, see Roland, "Allied POWs," 87-88, and S. P. MacKenzie, "The Treatment of Prisoners of War in World War II," Journal of Modern History, LXVI (1994), 512-518.
67. Kerr, Surrender and Survival, 31. For a summary of the philosophical issues surrounding the Japanese treatment of prisoners, see Roland, "Allied POWs," 87-88, and S. P. MacKenzie, "The Treatment of Prisoners of War in World War II," Journal of Modern History, LXVI (1994), 512-518.
68. Kerr, Surrender and Survival, 31. For a summary of the philosophical issues surrounding the Japanese treatment of prisoners, see Roland, "Allied POWs," 87-88, and S. P. MacKenzie, "The Treatment of Prisoners of War in World War II," Journal of Modern History, LXVI (1994), 512-518.
69. Transcript of the Proceedings of the Tribunal, Apr 29 1946-Nov 12, 1948, pp. 14, 27, 213, 822-823, International Military Tribunal for the Far East, National Archives Collection of World War II War Crimes Records, Record Group 238, National Archives, Washington, D.C. See Reel, Case of General Yamashita, and Lael, The Yamashita Precedent, for a similar case in the Philippines.
70. Transcript of the Proceedings of the Tribunal, Apr 29 1946-Nov 12, 1948, pp. 14, 27, 213, 822-823, International Military Tribunal for the Far East, National Archives Collection of World War II War Crimes Records, Record Group 238, National Archives, Washington, D.C. See Reel, Case of General Yamashita, and Lael, The Yamashita Precedent, for a similar case in the Philippines.
71. Transcript of the Proceedings of the Tribunal, Apr 29 1946-Nov 12, 1948, pp. 14, 27, 213, 822-823, International Military Tribunal for the Far East, National Archives Collection of World War II War Crimes Records, Record Group 238, National Archives, Washington, D.C. See Reel, Case of General Yamashita, and Lael, The Yamashita Precedent, for a similar case in the Philippines.
72. Pal, Judgment, 1030-1031. For an overview of prisoner executions throughout the Japanese home islands, see Kerr, Surrende and Survival 264-268. For the structure of Japanese military districts in 1945, see United States Strategic Bombing Survey (Pacific), Japanese Military and Naval Intelligence Division (Washington, D.C., 1946), 4-17, and Saburo Hayashi and Alvin D. Coox, Kogun: The Japanese Army in the Pacific War (Quantico, Va., 1959), 163-167.
73. Pal, Judgment, 1030-1031. For an overview of prisoner executions throughout the Japanese home islands, see Kerr, Surrende and Survival 264-268. For the structure of Japanese military districts in 1945, see United States Strategic Bombing Survey (Pacific), Japanese Military and Naval Intelligence Division (Washington, D.C., 1946), 4-17, and Saburo Hayashi and Alvin D. Coox, Kogun: The Japanese Army in the Pacific War (Quantico, Va., 1959), 163-167.
74. Pal, Judgment, 1030-1031. For an overview of prisoner executions throughout the Japanese home islands, see Kerr, Surrende and Survival 264-268. For the structure of Japanese military districts in 1945, see United States Strategic Bombing Survey (Pacific), Japanese Military and Naval Intelligence Division (Washington, D.C., 1946), 4-17, and Saburo Hayashi and Alvin D. Coox, Kogun: The Japanese Army in the Pacific War (Quantico, Va., 1959), 163-167.
75. Pal, Judgment, 1030-1031. For an overview of prisoner executions throughout the Japanese home islands, see Kerr, Surrende and Survival 264-268. For the structure of Japanese military districts in 1945, see United States Strategic Bombing Survey (Pacific), Japanese Military and Naval Intelligence Division (Washington, D.C., 1946), 4-17, and Saburo Hayashi and Alvin D. Coox, Kogun: The Japanese Army in the Pacific War (Quantico, Va., 1959), 163-167.
76. MacKenzie, "Treatment of Prisoners," 518. It should be noted that neither Germany nor North Vietnam killed POWs on a regular basis. But, unlike Japan, neither country had an established policy of punishing aviators for bombing civilians. Laos during the American intervention in Vietnam, on the other hand, is an example where aircrew were intentionally put to death. See U.S. House Committee on National Security, Military Personnel Subcommittee, Department of Defense's Comprehensive Review of POW/MIA Cases, 10 Cong., 1 sess. (Nov. 20, 30, 1995).
77. MacKenzie, "Treatment of Prisoners," 518. It should be noted that neither Germany nor North Vietnam killed POWs on a regular basis. But, unlike Japan, neither country had an established policy of punishing aviators for bombing civilians. Laos during the American intervention in Vietnam, on the other hand, is an example where aircrew were intentionally put to death. See U.S. House Committee on National Security, Military Personnel Subcommittee, Department of Defense's Comprehensive Review of POW/MIA Cases, 10 Cong., 1 sess. (Nov. 20, 30, 1995).
78. For an excellent discussion of the tensions between ethics, morality, and ideology that led to atrocities in the Pacific, see Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, 197-215.
79. Pal, Judgment, 1020-1021. The ex post facto law itself, while viewed in the West as a clear violation of the Geneva Conventions and the rule of law, had some precedents in the 1923 Commission on Air Warfare Rules. Ibid., 1023-1024.
80. Pal, Judgment, 1020-1021. The ex post facto law itself, while viewed in the West as a clear violation of the Geneva Conventions and the rule of law, had some precedents in the 1923 Commission on Air Warfare Rules. Ibid., 1023-1024.
81. Prosecution Exhibit #44, enclosed in U.S. v Matsuki. A similar version can be found in Pal. Judgment, 1022. Riukichi Tanaka, an adviser to Prime Minister (Adm.) Kantaro Suzuki in mid-1945, stated that the act's purpose was "to prevent further raids by giving stern disposition to enemy airmen, thereby inculcating fear in American mothers and possibly resulting in an anti-war movement in the United States." See "Review," 21.
82. Prosecution Exhibit #44, enclosed in U.S. v Matsuki. A similar version can be found in Pal. Judgment, 1022. Riukichi Tanaka, an adviser to Prime Minister (Adm.) Kantaro Suzuki in mid-1945, stated that the act's purpose was "to prevent further raids by giving stern disposition to enemy airmen, thereby inculcating fear in American mothers and possibly resulting in an anti-war movement in the United States." See "Review," 21.
83. Statements of Col. Yoshinao Sato, Chief of the Air Intelligence and Army Air Defense Sections, and Col. Hiroshi Akita, Senior Staff Officer, at Western Army Headquarters, Fukuoka, Japan, in "Opinion," 78, 80-82. There is some discrepancy on this issue, with an earlier ruling supporting the contention that Tokyo ordered military units to kill their prisoners; see "Review," 47. 1 have sided with the latter interpretation as additional testimony was included in the Board of Review's evidence.
84. Statements of Col. Yoshinao Sato, Chief of the Air Intelligence and Army Air Defense Sections, and Col. Hiroshi Akita, Senior Staff Officer, at Western Army Headquarters, Fukuoka, Japan, in "Opinion," 78, 80-82. There is some discrepancy on this issue, with an earlier ruling supporting the contention that Tokyo ordered military units to kill their prisoners; see "Review," 47. 1 have sided with the latter interpretation as additional testimony was included in the Board of Review's evidence.
85. "Review" 11; "Opinion," 82; Prosecution Exhibit #28:7, U.S. v Masaji Nagaoka, file 36-494-1, RG 153.
86. "Review" 11; "Opinion," 82; Prosecution Exhibit #28:7, U.S. v Masaji Nagaoka, file 36-494-1, RG 153.
87. "Opinion," 8-9.
88. Ibid., 8a, 20.
89. See "Review," 11, for summary, and "Opinion," 9, for quote. Again, all oral testimony in the record was taken by investigators or recorded in trial transcripts between early 1947 and late 1950. No testimony or records, unless noted, date from 1945.
90. See "Review," 11, for summary, and "Opinion," 9, for quote. Again, all oral testimony in the record was taken by investigators or recorded in trial transcripts between early 1947 and late 1950. No testimony or records, unless noted, date from 1945.
91. The officers involved were Maj. Gen. Shoshin Ito, Chief of the Legal Section; Col. Yoshinao Sato, Chief of the Air Intelligence and Air Defense Sections; Capt. Yusei Wako, Senior Assistant Judge Advocate, Legal Section; Lt. Sadayoshi Murata, Assistant Judge Advocate; and Maj. Tokuji Enatsu, from Western Army Kempeitai Headquarters. Wako had been present at the Doolittle flyers trial in 1942. See "Review," 11-12, and "Opinion," 9-10.
92. The officers involved were Maj. Gen. Shoshin Ito, Chief of the Legal Section; Col. Yoshinao Sato, Chief of the Air Intelligence and Air Defense Sections; Capt. Yusei Wako, Senior Assistant Judge Advocate, Legal Section; Lt. Sadayoshi Murata, Assistant Judge Advocate; and Maj. Tokuji Enatsu, from Western Army Kempeitai Headquarters. Wako had been present at the Doolittle flyers trial in 1942. See "Review," 11-12, and "Opinion," 9-10.
93. "Opinion," 9-10, 77. There is some discrepancy in testimony over this point. Wako remembered that although Sato used the term "Shochi," meaning to "take care of something," Wako inferred that Sato wanted to execute all the prisoners, even though that word is "Shodan" or "Shobun." The late Capt. Roger Pineau, U.S. Naval Reserves (Ret.), provided this interpretation in October 1993, through the mediation of Glenn Helm, a librarian at the Navy Department Library, Naval Historical Center, Washington, D.C.
94. "Review," 34-35, and "Opinion," 9-10.
95. "Review," 34-35, and "Opinion," 9-10.
96. See "Opinion," 77-82, for an argument over the correct interpretation of the message. See "Review," 38-42, for reasoning.
97. See "Opinion," 77-82, for an argument over the correct interpretation of the message. See "Review," 38-42, for reasoning.
98. See "Review," 13, 20, and "Opinion," 10-11, 15.
99. See "Review," 13, 20, and "Opinion," 10-11, 15.
100. See "Review," 24, 31-32, and "Opinion," 11-12.
101. See "Review," 24, 31-32, and "Opinion," 11-12.
102. "Opinion," 12.
103. Of the eight flyers, four were later identified as Robert J. Aspinall, Otto W. Baumgarten, Merlin R. Calvin, and Jack V. Dengler. Four were never identified. They came from among twelve other flyers held at Western Army Headquarters prior to June 20; Jack M. Berry, Billy J. Brown, John C. Colehower, Irving A. Corlias, Leon E. Czarnecki, William R. Fredericks, Edgar L. McElfresh, Dale E. Plambeck, Teddy J. Poncza, Charles S. Palmer, Ralph S. Romines, and Robert B. Williams. The other eight had already been killed during vivisection experiments at Kyushu Imperial University Medical College between May 16 and June 3, 1945. See U.S. v Kajuro Aihara et alia, file 36-527-1, RG 153.
104. "Review," 13, 24, 31-32, and "Opinion," 29.
105. "Review," 13, 24, 31-32, and "Opinion," 29.
106. "Review," 16, and "Opinion," 29. When Murata saw the false report, he noted that sixteen flyers was too high a number. He did not know, however, of the eight flyers who had been killed at Kyushu Imperial University (see footnote 49 above).
107. "Review," 16, and "Opinion," 29. When Murata saw the false report, he noted that sixteen flyers was too high a number. He did not know, however, of the eight flyers who had been killed at Kyushu Imperial University (see footnote 49 above).
108. See Werrell, Blankets of Fire, 208-220; Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in World War II, 713-725; Samuel Eliot Morison, Victory in the Pacific, 1945 (Boston, 1960), 298-335; for casualty figures, Bernstein, "Understanding the Atomic Bomb," 251.
109. See Werrell, Blankets of Fire, 208-220; Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in World War II, 713-725; Samuel Eliot Morison, Victory in the Pacific, 1945 (Boston, 1960), 298-335; for casualty figures, Bernstein, "Understanding the Atomic Bomb," 251.
110. See Werrell, Blankets of Fire, 208-220; Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in World War II, 713-725; Samuel Eliot Morison, Victory in the Pacific, 1945 (Boston, 1960), 298-335; for casualty figures, Bernstein, "Understanding the Atomic Bomb," 251.
111. See Werrell, Blankets of Fire, 208-220; Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in World War II, 713-725; Samuel Eliot Morison, Victory in the Pacific, 1945 (Boston, 1960), 298-335; for casualty figures, Bernstein, "Understanding the Atomic Bomb," 251.
112. Although Imperial General Headquarters was pursuing a policy of conserving air strength, to maintain a reserve for the Ketsi-Go Operation (i.e., the decisive struggle for the homeland), the Sixth Air Army on Kyushu was authorized to "carry out strong counterattack operations vs. U.S. heavy aircraft raiding homeland," and it was these planes that attacked the B-29s over Omuta and shot down a few of the twenty-one operational bomber losses in July and August. See Hayashi and Coox, Kogun, 159-162, and Werrcll, Blankets of Fire, 257. For prisoners, see "Opinion," 76m-n.
113. Although Imperial General Headquarters was pursuing a policy of conserving air strength, to maintain a reserve for the Ketsi-Go Operation (i.e., the decisive struggle for the homeland), the Sixth Air Army on Kyushu was authorized to "carry out strong counterattack operations vs. U.S. heavy aircraft raiding homeland," and it was these planes that attacked the B-29s over Omuta and shot down a few of the twenty-one operational bomber losses in July and August. See Hayashi and Coox, Kogun, 159-162, and Werrcll, Blankets of Fire, 257. For prisoners, see "Opinion," 76m-n.
114. Although Imperial General Headquarters was pursuing a policy of conserving air strength, to maintain a reserve for the Ketsi-Go Operation (i.e., the decisive struggle for the homeland), the Sixth Air Army on Kyushu was authorized to "carry out strong counterattack operations vs. U.S. heavy aircraft raiding homeland," and it was these planes that attacked the B-29s over Omuta and shot down a few of the twenty-one operational bomber losses in July and August. See Hayashi and Coox, Kogun, 159-162, and Werrcll, Blankets of Fire, 257. For prisoners, see "Opinion," 76m-n.
115. There is surprisingly little reference to the atomic bombs in the trial records, and there is only limited testimony, some of it conflicting, regarding the decision to execute the second group of prisoners. The Board of Review concluded that the chain of command led up at least to Sato but could not confirm any higher responsibility. See "Review," 10, 14, and "Opinion," 15.
116. There is surprisingly little reference to the atomic bombs in the trial records, and there is only limited testimony, some of it conflicting, regarding the decision to execute the second group of prisoners. The Board of Review concluded that the chain of command led up at least to Sato but could not confirm any higher responsibility. See "Review," 10, 14, and "Opinion," 15.
117. Statement of Tatsuo Itezono, "Review," 14, and "Opinion," 16.
118. Statement of Tatsuo Itezono, "Review," 14, and "Opinion," 16.
119. "Review," 14, 22, 31, and Opinion," 17-18. See Exhibit 1, "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Osamu Satano, file 36-531-1, RG 153.
120. "Review," 14, 22, 31, and Opinion," 17-18. See Exhibit 1, "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Osamu Satano, file 36-531-1, RG 153.
121. "Review," 14, 22, 31, and Opinion," 17-18. See Exhibit 1, "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Osamu Satano, file 36-531-1, RG 153.
122. There is some controversy over the identity of the first five executioners. See the conflicting testimony in "Review," 14, "Opinion," 18, and U.S. v Satano, 2-4. There is evidence that at least one probationary officer refused to execute a prisoner even when ordered to do so. The officer was not punished for this refusal. See ibid., 4, 10.
123. There is some controversy over the identity of the first five executioners. See the conflicting testimony in "Review," 14, "Opinion," 18, and U.S. v Satano, 2-4. There is evidence that at least one probationary officer refused to execute a prisoner even when ordered to do so. The officer was not punished for this refusal. See ibid., 4, 10.
124. There is some controversy over the identity of the first five executioners. See the conflicting testimony in "Review," 14, "Opinion," 18, and U.S. v Satano, 2-4. There is evidence that at least one probationary officer refused to execute a prisoner even when ordered to do so. The officer was not punished for this refusal. See ibid., 4, 10.
125. "Opinion," 18.
126. Ibid., 18-19.
127. Information on the order of the eight executions is somewhat contradictory. I have relied on both the testimony of the participants and the opinion of the court to construct the above sequence of events. See "Review," 14-15, "Opinion," 18-23, and U.S. v Salano, 3.
128. Information on the order of the eight executions is somewhat contradictory. I have relied on both the testimony of the participants and the opinion of the court to construct the above sequence of events. See "Review," 14-15, "Opinion," 18-23, and U.S. v Salano, 3.
129. "Review," 14, 22.
130. "Opinion," 20-21.
131. Ibid., 22.
132. Ibid., 23, 25-26, 28.
133. Meirion Harries and Susan Harries, Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Japanese Imperial Army (New York, 1991), 458-459. For Sato's remark, see "Review," 20.
134. Meirion Harries and Susan Harries, Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Japanese Imperial Army (New York, 1991), 458-459. For Sato's remark, see "Review," 20.
135. "Opinion," 23, 26-27.
136. "Review," 30, and "Opinion," 34.
137. "Review," 30, and "Opinion," 34.
138. "Opinion," 29-34. The bodies were cremated in a temporary crematorium because the regular facility was too busy cremating Japanese civilians killed during bombing raids.
139. "Opinion," 29-34.
140. "Review," 16, and "Opinion," 29.
141. "Review," 16, and "Opinion," 29.
142. See Transcript of the Proceedings of the Tribunal, Apr 29 1946-Nov 12, 1948, p. 21; The Double Tenth Trial, xiv, xxxii; Tokyo Saiban, vols. 1-2.
143. See Transcript of the Proceedings of the Tribunal, Apr 29 1946-Nov 12, 1948, p. 21; The Double Tenth Trial, xiv, xxxii; Tokyo Saiban, vols. 1-2.
144. See Transcript of the Proceedings of the Tribunal, Apr 29 1946-Nov 12, 1948, p. 21; The Double Tenth Trial, xiv, xxxii; Tokyo Saiban, vols. 1-2.
145. U.S. v Tomomori, 349.
146. Pal, Judgment, 1033-1034.
147. The defense cited the "Amakasu Incident" to bolster this point of view. The case involved the murders of a Socialist party activist, his wife, and nephew following the 1923 earthquake in Tokyo. The three were murdered by soldiers, two officers and two enlisted men, but only the officers were punished. The enlisted soldiers were acquitted because "they did not know they were committing a crime . . . and, therefore, they had no criminal intent." Several witnesses claimed this story was taught to soldiers to illustrate obedience to orders. See U.S. v Satano, 6-8.
148. See Defense Exhibit H, The Japan Yearbook, The Imperial Precept to the Soldiers and Sailors (Tokyo, 1905-), and Defense Exhibit J, the affidavit of Shoichi Murakami, both enclosed in U.S. v Junsaburo Toshino et alia, file 36-531-1, RG 153; "Review," 37-38; U.S. v Satano, 6-12.
149. See Defense Exhibit H, The Japan Yearbook, The Imperial Precept to the Soldiers and Sailors (Tokyo, 1905-), and Defense Exhibit J, the affidavit of Shoichi Murakami, both enclosed in U.S. v Junsaburo Toshino et alia, file 36-531-1, RG 153; "Review," 37-38; U.S. v Satano, 6-12.
150. See the statement of Hiroji Nakayama, "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Aihara, 3, and exhibits in "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Akamine, 3.
151. See the statement of Hiroji Nakayama, "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Aihara, 3, and exhibits in "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Akamine, 3.
152. "Opinion," 77.
153. Taylor, Nuremberg and Vietnam, 94.
154. Statement of Lt. Col. Chester D. Silvers, Army Judge Advocate, U.S. v Satano, 12.
155. For quote and examples of refusing to participate, see the conclusions of Cyril E. Morrison, Judge Advocate Section, Review of the Staff Judge Advocate, U.S. v Satano, 10. For related issues, see Browning, Ordinary Men, 159-89. For the changing nuances in the argument over "superior orders," see Pal, Judgment, 1020-1022; Taylor, Nuremberg and Vietnam; Lael, The Yamashita Precedent, 139; and Cmdr. Jeffrey Blackett, Royal Navy, "To Do and Die," U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, CXXI (Annapolis, Md., 1995), 60-62.
156. For quote and examples of refusing to participate, see the conclusions of Cyril E. Morrison, Judge Advocate Section, Review of the Staff Judge Advocate, U.S. v Satano, 10. For related issues, see Browning, Ordinary Men, 159-89. For the changing nuances in the argument over "superior orders," see Pal, Judgment, 1020-1022; Taylor, Nuremberg and Vietnam; Lael, The Yamashita Precedent, 139; and Cmdr. Jeffrey Blackett, Royal Navy, "To Do and Die," U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, CXXI (Annapolis, Md., 1995), 60-62.
157. For quote and examples of refusing to participate, see the conclusions of Cyril E. Morrison, Judge Advocate Section, Review of the Staff Judge Advocate, U.S. v Satano, 10. For related issues, see Browning, Ordinary Men, 159-89. For the changing nuances in the argument over "superior orders," see Pal, Judgment, 1020-1022; Taylor, Nuremberg and Vietnam; Lael, The Yamashita Precedent, 139; and Cmdr. Jeffrey Blackett, Royal Navy, "To Do and Die," U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, CXXI (Annapolis, Md., 1995), 60-62.
158. For quote and examples of refusing to participate, see the conclusions of Cyril E. Morrison, Judge Advocate Section, Review of the Staff Judge Advocate, U.S. v Satano, 10. For related issues, see Browning, Ordinary Men, 159-89. For the changing nuances in the argument over "superior orders," see Pal, Judgment, 1020-1022; Taylor, Nuremberg and Vietnam; Lael, The Yamashita
159. For quote and examples of refusing to participate, see the conclusions of Cyril E. Morrison, Judge Advocate Section, Review of the Staff Judge Advocate, U.S. v Satano, 10. For related issues, see Browning, Ordinary Men, 159-89. For the changing nuances in the argument over "superior orders," see Pal, Judgment, 1020-1022; Taylor, Nuremberg and Vietnam; Lael, The Yamashita Precedent, 139; and Cmdr. Jeffrey Blackett, Royal Navy, "To Do and Die," U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, CXXI (Annapolis, Md., 1995), 60-62.
160. For quote and examples of refusing to participate, see the conclusions of Cyril E. Morrison, Judge Advocate Section, Review of the Staff Judge Advocate, U.S. v Satano, 10. For related issues, see Browning, Ordinary Men, 159-89. For the changing nuances in the argument over "superior orders," see Pal, Judgment, 1020-1022; Taylor, Nuremberg and Vietnam; Lael, The Yamashita Precedent, 139; and Cmdr. Jeffrey Blackett, Royal Navy, "To Do and Die," U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, CXXI (Annapolis, Md., 1995), 60-62.
161. See Office of the Judge Advocate General of the Army, Manual for Courts-Martial, 1949 (Washington, D.C., 1949), 162-164, and "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Morifumi Otosu, file 36-534-1, RG 153, p. 4.
162. See Office of the Judge Advocate General of the Army, Manual for Courts-Martial, 1949 (Washington, D.C., 1949), 162-164, and "Review of the Staff Judge Advocate," U.S. v Morifumi Otosu, file 36-534-1, RG 153, p. 4.
163. "Opinion," 73-74, 82.
164. "Review," 47-59.
165. Kerr, Surrender and Survival, 296.
166. See Browning, Ordinary Men, 159-161, and Dower, War Without Mercy, 3-15, 33-73. John Keegan, The Face of Battle: A Study of Agincourt, Waterloo, and the Somme (Harmondsworth, Eng, 1978), 47-49, 195-206, 282-284, provides further examples.
167. See Browning, Ordinary Men, 159-161, and Dower, War Without Mercy, 3-15, 33-73. John Keegan, The Face of Battle: A Study of Agincourt, Waterloo, and the Somme (Harmondsworth, Eng, 1978), 47-49, 195-206, 282-284, provides further examples.
168. See Browning, Ordinary Men, 159-161, and Dower, War Without Mercy, 3-15, 33-73. John Keegan, The Face of Battle: A Study of Agincourt, Waterloo, and the Somme (Harmondsworth, Eng, 1978), 47-49, 195-206, 282-284, provides further examples.
169. See Browning, Ordinary Men, 184-186, for a discussion of conformity and peer pressure. It should be noted that it is impossible to uncover all the reasons why the executions occurred. Recreating the executions portrayed in these pages is a contemporary memory, derived from the written record, not the truth as known in 1949. And even the contemporary documents are not directly connected to the events. They were written by American lawyers to record a war crimes trial that was itself based on the personal memories of Japanese participants, who were trying to remember the deaths of American prisoners whom they did not know or understand. The memory recorded is not only removed from us in time and space, as are all historical documents, but removed from direct experience as well.
170. For a discussion of atrocities and ethics in the Imperial Japanese Army, see Harries and Harries, Soldiers of the Sun, 478-484, especially 481.
171. The Stearns family was told on March 31, 1948, that the Occupation forces had determined their son had been captured and executed by the Japanese. On May 4, 1949, they were told that his body had been cremated after being executed and that his ashes were "thrown into Fukuoka Bay." The family was not told their son had been beheaded, although they later discovered that information through one of their state's Senators. The quote is from an August 31, 1945, letter from Col. Carl R. Storrie, Commander, 314th Bombardment Wing, writing on behalf of Maj. Gen. Edward F. Witsell, to Mrs. Gertrude B. Stearns, in author's possession.