Pan-Turkism and Europeanism: A note on Turkey's 'pro-German neutrality' during the Second World War

Central Asian Survey

Volumn 16, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 103-114

  Çaliş, Şaban ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF READING   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 5844328256     PISSN: 02634937     EISSN: None     Source Type: Trade Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/02634939708400974     Document Type: Article

References (113)

1. For example see: The Christian Science Monitor, 15-21 May 1992; Financial Times, 11 February 1992; G. E. Fuller and I. O. Lesser, Turkey's New Geopolitics: From the Balkans to Western China (Boulder, San Francisco, Oxford: Westview Press, 1993).
2. For example see: The Christian Science Monitor, 15-21 May 1992; Financial Times, 11 February 1992; G. E. Fuller and I. O. Lesser, Turkey's New Geopolitics: From the Balkans to Western China (Boulder, San Francisco, Oxford: Westview Press, 1993).
3. For example see: The Christian Science Monitor, 15-21 May 1992; Financial Times, 11 February 1992; G. E. Fuller and I. O. Lesser, Turkey's New Geopolitics: From the Balkans to Western China (Boulder, San Francisco, Oxford: Westview Press, 1993).
4. Since 1989, such a reasoning has became very popular among Turkish politicians as well. For example, see interviews with ex-foreign ministers, namely, Vahit Halefoglu, Mesut Yilmaz and Ali Bozer: Turkiye, 10-12 April 1991. See also: the statement of Suleyman Demirel, 'Adriyatik'ten Cin Seddine Kadar Dev Bir Turkluk Dunyasi Kuruldu' (A Turkic world has been established from the Adriatic Sea to the China Wall), Sabah, 24 February 1992; Milliyet, 22 February 1992.
5. Since 1989, such a reasoning has became very popular among Turkish politicians as well. For example, see interviews with ex-foreign ministers, namely, Vahit Halefoglu, Mesut Yilmaz and Ali Bozer: Turkiye, 10-12 April 1991. See also: the statement of Suleyman Demirel, 'Adriyatik'ten Cin Seddine Kadar Dev Bir Turkluk Dunyasi Kuruldu' (A Turkic world has been established from the Adriatic Sea to the China Wall), Sabah, 24 February 1992; Milliyet, 22 February 1992.
6. Since 1989, such a reasoning has became very popular among Turkish politicians as well. For example, see interviews with ex-foreign ministers, namely, Vahit Halefoglu, Mesut Yilmaz and Ali Bozer: Turkiye, 10-12 April 1991. See also: the statement of Suleyman Demirel, 'Adriyatik'ten Cin Seddine Kadar Dev Bir Turkluk Dunyasi Kuruldu' (A Turkic world has been established from the Adriatic Sea to the China Wall), Sabah, 24 February 1992; Milliyet, 22 February 1992.
7. F. C. Erkin, who was one of the Turkish diplomats who participated in the Saracoglu delegation, maintains that Moscow deliberately invited both the German and Turkish foreign ministers at the same time in order to play one off against the other as a 'scarecrow'. F. C. Erkin, Turk-Soviet Iliskileri ve Bogazlar Meselesi (Ankara: Basnur Matbaasi, 1968), pp 154-156. According to Deringil, 'This humiliation left its mark on Saracoglu who became renowned for his anti-Soviet attitude'. S. Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy During the Second World War: An 'Active' Neutrality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), p 87. On the other hand, Erkin recalls their days in Moscow as 'unforgettable' in terms of Russian's hospitality.
8. F. C. Erkin, who was one of the Turkish diplomats who participated in the Saracoglu delegation, maintains that Moscow deliberately invited both the German and Turkish foreign ministers at the same time in order to play one off against the other as a 'scarecrow'. F. C. Erkin, Turk-Soviet Iliskileri ve Bogazlar Meselesi (Ankara: Basnur Matbaasi, 1968), pp 154-156. According to Deringil, 'This humiliation left its mark on Saracoglu who became renowned for his anti-Soviet attitude'. S. Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy During the Second World War: An 'Active' Neutrality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), p 87. On the other hand, Erkin recalls their days in Moscow as 'unforgettable' in terms of Russian's hospitality.
9. In this chaotic situation, it is a fact that Britain tried to bind severing ties and to improve relations between these countries. In July 1940, British Ambassadors in Moscow and Ankara, Stafford Cripps and Knatchbull-Hugessen respectively spent some efforts in order to bring the two neighbours together. Stalin's announcement in 1940 was a result of these efforts. L. Woodward, British Foreign Policy in the Second World War (London, 1962), p 67; N. Sadak, 'Turkey Faces the Soviets', Foreign Affairs, Vol 27, 1948-49, p 455; Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, pp 95-96.
10. In this chaotic situation, it is a fact that Britain tried to bind severing ties and to improve relations between these countries. In July 1940, British Ambassadors in Moscow and Ankara, Stafford Cripps and Knatchbull-Hugessen respectively spent some efforts in order to bring the two neighbours together. Stalin's announcement in 1940 was a result of these efforts. L. Woodward, British Foreign Policy in the Second World War (London, 1962), p 67; N. Sadak, 'Turkey Faces the Soviets', Foreign Affairs, Vol 27, 1948-49, p 455; Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, pp 95-96.
11. In this chaotic situation, it is a fact that Britain tried to bind severing ties and to improve relations between these countries. In July 1940, British Ambassadors in Moscow and Ankara, Stafford Cripps and Knatchbull-Hugessen respectively spent some efforts in order to bring the two neighbours together. Stalin's announcement in 1940 was a result of these efforts. L. Woodward, British Foreign Policy in the Second World War (London, 1962), p 67; N. Sadak, 'Turkey Faces the Soviets', Foreign Affairs, Vol 27, 1948-49, p 455; Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, pp 95-96.
12. G. Kirk, 'The USSR and the Middle East in 1939-1945: Turkey', in Survey of International Relations, The Middle East in the War, (London: Oxford University Press, 1952), p 353.
13. N. Y. Tschirgi, Laying Foundations of Contemporary Turkish Foreign Policy 1945-1952. Unpublished PhD Dissertation, The University of Toronto: Toronto, 1979, p 121.
14. HMSO, Documents on German Foreign Policy 1918-1945 (DGFP), Series D 1937-1945, the War Years, 1 September 1940/31 January 1941, Vol XI (London: HMSO, 1961), pp 509-510; F. A. Vali, Bridge Across the Bosphorus: The Foreign Policy of Turkey (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971), pp 60-61; A. S. Esmer and O. Sander, 'Ikinci Dunya Savasinda Turk Dis Politikasi', in M. Gonlubol et al., Olaylarla Turk Dis Politikasi (Ankara: Alkim Yainlari, 1990), pp 156-157.
15. HMSO, Documents on German Foreign Policy 1918-1945 (DGFP), Series D 1937-1945, the War Years, 1 September 1940/31 January 1941, Vol XI (London: HMSO, 1961), pp 509-510; F. A. Vali, Bridge Across the Bosphorus: The Foreign Policy of Turkey (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971), pp 60-61; A. S. Esmer and O. Sander, 'Ikinci Dunya Savasinda Turk Dis Politikasi', in M. Gonlubol et al., Olaylarla Turk Dis Politikasi (Ankara: Alkim Yainlari, 1990), pp 156-157.
16. HMSO, Documents on German Foreign Policy 1918-1945 (DGFP), Series D 1937-1945, the War Years, 1 September 1940/31 January 1941, Vol XI (London: HMSO, 1961), pp 509-510; F. A. Vali, Bridge Across the Bosphorus: The Foreign Policy of Turkey (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971), pp 60-61; A. S. Esmer and O. Sander, 'Ikinci Dunya Savasinda Turk Dis Politikasi', in M. Gonlubol et al., Olaylarla Turk Dis Politikasi (Ankara: Alkim Yainlari, 1990), pp 156-157.
17. HMSO, DGFP, S.D., Vol XI, pp 714-715. In the famous conversation between Hitler and Molotov, recalling the Crimean War and the events of the years 1918-19 the latter had explicitly stated that for reasons of security the Straits and the Black Sea were of great importance for the Soviets, and they needed particularly the Straits. Ibid, pp 560-561. For a detailed analysis of the conversations from a Turkish standpoint, see A. Sukru Esmer, 'Hitler-Molotov Mulakati ve Turkiye', Siyasi Ilimler Mecmuasi, Vol XXIV, No 277, Nisan 1954, pp 88-90.
18. HMSO, DGFP, S.D., Vol XI, pp 714-715. In the famous conversation between Hitler and Molotov, recalling the Crimean War and the events of the years 1918-19 the latter had explicitly stated that for reasons of security the Straits and the Black Sea were of great importance for the Soviets, and they needed particularly the Straits. Ibid, pp 560-561. For a detailed analysis of the conversations from a Turkish standpoint, see A. Sukru Esmer, 'Hitler-Molotov Mulakati ve Turkiye', Siyasi Ilimler Mecmuasi, Vol XXIV, No 277, Nisan 1954, pp 88-90.
19. HMSO, DGFP, S.D., Vol XI, pp 714-715. In the famous conversation between Hitler and Molotov, recalling the Crimean War and the events of the years 1918-19 the latter had explicitly stated that for reasons of security the Straits and the Black Sea were of great importance for the Soviets, and they needed particularly the Straits. Ibid, pp 560-561. For a detailed analysis of the conversations from a Turkish standpoint, see A. Sukru Esmer, 'Hitler-Molotov Mulakati ve Turkiye', Siyasi Ilimler Mecmuasi, Vol XXIV, No 277, Nisan 1954, pp 88-90.
20. Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, p 116; Esmer and Sander, 'Ikinci Dunya Savasinda', p 158.
21. Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, p 116; Esmer and Sander, 'Ikinci Dunya Savasinda', p 158.
22. Turkiye Cumhuriyeti, Disisleri Bakanligi (TCDB), Arastirma ve Siyaset Genel Mudurlugu, Turkiye Dis Politikasinda 50 Yil: Ikinci Dunya Savasi Yillari (1939-1946) (Ankara, 1973), pp 72-73; E. Barker, British Policy in South East Europe in the Second World War (London: Macmillan, 1974), p 23; Kirk, 'Turkey', p 450. For the text of the Soviet declaration see also: T. C. Basbakanlik Basin ve Matbuat Genel Mudurlugu, Ayin Tarihi, No 88, March 1941, p 49.
23. Turkiye Cumhuriyeti, Disisleri Bakanligi (TCDB), Arastirma ve Siyaset Genel Mudurlugu, Turkiye Dis Politikasinda 50 Yil: Ikinci Dunya Savasi Yillari (1939-1946) (Ankara, 1973), pp 72-73; E. Barker, British Policy in South East Europe in the Second World War (London: Macmillan, 1974), p 23; Kirk, 'Turkey', p 450. For the text of the Soviet declaration see also: T. C. Basbakanlik Basin ve Matbuat Genel Mudurlugu, Ayin Tarihi, No 88, March 1941, p 49.
24. Turkiye Cumhuriyeti, Disisleri Bakanligi (TCDB), Arastirma ve Siyaset Genel Mudurlugu, Turkiye Dis Politikasinda 50 Yil: Ikinci Dunya Savasi Yillari (1939-1946) (Ankara, 1973), pp 72-73; E. Barker, British Policy in South East Europe in the Second World War (London: Macmillan, 1974), p 23; Kirk, 'Turkey', p 450. For the text of the Soviet declaration see also: T. C. Basbakanlik Basin ve Matbuat Genel Mudurlugu, Ayin Tarihi, No 88, March 1941, p 49.
25. Turkiye Cumhuriyeti, Disisleri Bakanligi (TCDB), Arastirma ve Siyaset Genel Mudurlugu, Turkiye Dis Politikasinda 50 Yil: Ikinci Dunya Savasi Yillari (1939-1946) (Ankara, 1973), pp 72-73; E. Barker, British Policy in South East Europe in the Second World War (London: Macmillan, 1974), p 23; Kirk, 'Turkey', p 450. For the text of the Soviet declaration see also: T. C. Basbakanlik Basin ve Matbuat Genel Mudurlugu, Ayin Tarihi, No 88, March 1941, p 49.
26. TCDB, Ikinci Dunya Savasi Yillari, pp 96-121; Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, pp 120-122.
27. TCDB, Ikinci Dunya Savasi Yillari, pp 96-121; Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, pp 120-122.
28. Esmer and Sander, 'Ikinci Dunya Savasinda', pp 163-165; Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, p 123.
29. Esmer and Sander, 'Ikinci Dunya Savasinda', pp 163-165; Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, p 123.
30. HMSO, Documents on German Foreign Policy 1918-1945, Series D, the War Years, 23 June 1941/11 December 1941, Vol XIII (London: HMSO, 1964), pp 174-175.
31. Ibid, pp 174-175, 632-633.
32. Throughout the negotiations that led to the Turco-German Treaty, Turkey informed the British Ambassador in Ankara. According to the Ambassador, 'the Anglo-Turkish alliance retained precedence ... The Turks were driven by hard practical considerations into making their Treaty with Germany. It was in no sense due to inclination or sentiment they did so.' Sir H. Knatchbull-Hugessen, Diplomat in Peace and War (London, 1949), p 170.
33. HMSO, DGFP, S.D. Vol XIII, p 632. See also, pp 174 and 589.
34. C. Warren Hostler, The Turks of Central Asia (Connecticut and London: Praeger, 1993), pp 132-141.
35. For German efforts to bring Turkey into the war in their side see: Esmer and Sander, 'Ikinci Dunya Savasinda', pp 169-170; Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, Chapter VII and VIII.
36. For German efforts to bring Turkey into the war in their side see: Esmer and Sander, 'Ikinci Dunya Savasinda', pp 169-170; Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, Chapter VII and VIII.
37. For the pro and anti-pan-Turkist debates among intellectuals during the Second World War, see: J. M. Landau, Pan Turkism in Turkey: A Study of Irredentism (London: C. Hurst and Company, 1981), Chapter IV, particularly pp 108-115.
38. Ibid, p 130.
39. HMSO, DGFP, S.D, Vol XIII, pp 632-633.
40. E. Weisband, Turkish Foreign Policy, 1943-1945: Small State Diplomacy and Great Power Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press), 1973, pp 237-256.
41. Knatchbull-Hugessen, Diplomat, p 138.
42. HMSO, DGFP, Series D, Vol XIII, p 473.
43. Hostler, The Turks of Central Asia, pp 134-139.
44. Ibid, p 135. See also: G. Lenczowski, Middle East in World Affairs (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press), p 142.
45. Ibid, p 135. See also: G. Lenczowski, Middle East in World Affairs (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press), p 142.
46. C. Kocak, Turkiye'de Milli Sef Donemi 1939-1945 (Ankara: Yurt Yayinlari, 1986), p 194.
47. Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, pp 130-131.
48. N. Dagli-B. Akturk, Hukumetler ve Programlari 1920-1960, Vol I (Ankara: TBMM Basimevi, 1988), p 105. For the program of the first Saracoglu government read on 5.8.1942, and subsequent debates including the vote of confidence in the TGNA see: Turkiye Cumhuriyeti Buyuk Millet Meclisi (TCBMM), Zabit Ceridesi, Donem 6, Vol XXVII (Ankara, 1942), pp 21-34.
49. N. Dagli-B. Akturk, Hukumetler ve Programlari 1920-1960, Vol I (Ankara: TBMM Basimevi, 1988), p 105. For the program of the first Saracoglu government read on 5.8.1942, and subsequent debates including the vote of confidence in the TGNA see: Turkiye Cumhuriyeti Buyuk Millet Meclisi (TCBMM), Zabit Ceridesi, Donem 6, Vol XXVII (Ankara, 1942), pp 21-34.
50. The text of the law (No 4305) can be seen in Dustur, Ucuncu Tertip, Vol XXIV. For the text and the debates on it see also: TCBMM, Zabit Ceridesi, Donem 6, Vol XXVIII (Ankara, 1942), pp 14-32. B. Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968), pp 297-303. For an insider's account of this tax see: F. Okte, Varlik Vergisi Faciasi (Istanbul, 1951).
51. The text of the law (No 4305) can be seen in Dustur, Ucuncu Tertip, Vol XXIV. For the text and the debates on it see also: TCBMM, Zabit Ceridesi, Donem 6, Vol XXVIII (Ankara, 1942), pp 14-32. B. Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968), pp 297-303. For an insider's account of this tax see: F. Okte, Varlik Vergisi Faciasi (Istanbul, 1951).
52. The text of the law (No 4305) can be seen in Dustur, Ucuncu Tertip, Vol XXIV. For the text and the debates on it see also: TCBMM, Zabit Ceridesi, Donem 6, Vol XXVIII (Ankara, 1942), pp 14-32. B. Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968), pp 297-303. For an insider's account of this tax see: F. Okte, Varlik Vergisi Faciasi (Istanbul, 1951).
53. The text of the law (No 4305) can be seen in Dustur, Ucuncu Tertip, Vol XXIV. For the text and the debates on it see also: TCBMM, Zabit Ceridesi, Donem 6, Vol XXVIII (Ankara, 1942), pp 14-32. B. Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968), pp 297-303. For an insider's account of this tax see: F. Okte, Varlik Vergisi Faciasi (Istanbul, 1951).
54. For S. Saracoglu's speech see: TCBMM, Zabit Ceridesi, Donem 6, Vol XXVIII (Ankara, 1942), p 21; Lewis, The Emergence, p 297.
55. For S. Saracoglu's speech see: TCBMM, Zabit Ceridesi, Donem 6, Vol XXVIII (Ankara, 1942), p 21; Lewis, The Emergence, p 297.
56. Ibid, p 299; G. Lewis, Turkey (New York, 1960), p 117.
57. Ibid, p 299; G. Lewis, Turkey (New York, 1960), p 117.
58. Lewis, The Emergence, p 297; Okte, Varlik Vergisi, pp 38-39.
59. Lewis, The Emergence, p 297; Okte, Varlik Vergisi, pp 38-39.
60. US Department of States, Foreign Relations of the United of States 1943, Vol IV, Washington, DC, 1964, pp 1079-1081. See also: Weisband, Turkish Foreign Policy, p 233.
61. US Department of States, Foreign Relations of the United of States 1943, Vol IV, Washington, DC, 1964, pp 1079-1081. See also: Weisband, Turkish Foreign Policy, p 233.
62. Lewis, The Emergence, pp 301-302.
63. HMSO, DGFP, S.D, Vol XIII, pp 284, 473, 571, 707; Hostler, The Turks of Central Asia, pp 133-136.
64. HMSO, DGFP, S.D, Vol XIII, pp 284, 473, 571, 707; Hostler, The Turks of Central Asia, pp 133-136.
65. Ibid, pp 137-139. See also: Landau, Pan Turkism in Turkey, pp 108-112; Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, pp 130-131.
66. Ibid, pp 137-139. See also: Landau, Pan Turkism in Turkey, pp 108-112; Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, pp 130-131.
67. Ibid, pp 137-139. See also: Landau, Pan Turkism in Turkey, pp 108-112; Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, pp 130-131.
68. Kocak, Turkiye 'de Milli Sef Donemi, pp 191-203.
69. Weisband, Turkish Foreign Policy, p 242.
70. Ibid, p 249.
71. Ibid, pp 242-243.
72. The Times showed great interest and reported the following events which occurred in Turkey in its issues of 16, 17, 20, 22, and 26 May 1944. According to The Times, the number of arrested men exceeded hundreds. However, the official number was around 50. Ayin Tarihi, Vol 126, May 1944, pp 21-23.
73. Ibid, pp 22-23; Kirk, 'Turkey', p 460. The trial of Turkists in May and in September caused much trouble and led to serious disturbances throughout Turkey, because the security forces overacted and harsh decisions were taken by the courts. According to a Turkish author, all these were deliberately designed by the Turkish government under the control of Inonu. Kocak, Turkiye'de Milli Sef Donemi, p 299.
74. Ibid, pp 22-23; Kirk, 'Turkey', p 460. The trial of Turkists in May and in September caused much trouble and led to serious disturbances throughout Turkey, because the security forces overacted and harsh decisions were taken by the courts. According to a Turkish author, all these were deliberately designed by the Turkish government under the control of Inonu. Kocak, Turkiye'de Milli Sef Donemi, p 299.
75. Ibid, pp 22-23; Kirk, 'Turkey', p 460. The trial of Turkists in May and in September caused much trouble and led to serious disturbances throughout Turkey, because the security forces overacted and harsh decisions were taken by the courts. According to a Turkish author, all these were deliberately designed by the Turkish government under the control of Inonu. Kocak, Turkiye'de Milli Sef Donemi, p 299.
76. Ayin Tarihi, Vol 126, May 1944, pp 23-29. Y. Sarinay, Turkiye'nin Bati Ittifakina Yonelisis ve NATO'ya Girisi 1939-1952, p 38; Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, p 174; Weisband, Turkish Foreign Policy, pp 244-246.
77. Ayin Tarihi, Vol 126, May 1944, pp 23-29. Y. Sarinay, Turkiye'nin Bati Ittifakina Yonelisis ve NATO'ya Girisi 1939-1952, p 38; Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, p 174; Weisband, Turkish Foreign Policy, pp 244-246.
78. Ayin Tarihi, Vol 126, May 1944, pp 23-29. Y. Sarinay, Turkiye'nin Bati Ittifakina Yonelisis ve NATO'ya Girisi 1939-1952, p 38; Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, p 174; Weisband, Turkish Foreign Policy, pp 244-246.
79. Ayin Tarihi, Vol 126, May 1944, pp 23-29. Y. Sarinay, Turkiye'nin Bati Ittifakina Yonelisis ve NATO'ya Girisi 1939-1952, p 38; Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, p 174; Weisband, Turkish Foreign Policy, pp 244-246.
80. Lewis, The Emergence, pp 299-300; Weisband, Turkish Foreign Policy, p 236; Sarinay Turkiye'nin, p 38; Okte, Tarlik Vergisi, pp 197-213. For background information leading to the cancellation of this tax see also: L. V. Thomas and Richard N. Frye, The United States and Turkey and Iran (Cambridge, MA: 1951), pp 95-98. Kirk, 'Turkey', p 358.
81. Lewis, The Emergence, pp 299-300; Weisband, Turkish Foreign Policy, p 236; Sarinay Turkiye'nin, p 38; Okte, Tarlik Vergisi, pp 197-213. For background information leading to the cancellation of this tax see also: L. V. Thomas and Richard N. Frye, The United States and Turkey and Iran (Cambridge, MA: 1951), pp 95-98. Kirk, 'Turkey', p 358.
82. Lewis, The Emergence, pp 299-300; Weisband, Turkish Foreign Policy, p 236; Sarinay Turkiye'nin, p 38; Okte, Tarlik Vergisi, pp 197-213. For background information leading to the cancellation of this tax see also: L. V. Thomas and Richard N. Frye, The United States and Turkey and Iran (Cambridge, MA: 1951), pp 95-98. Kirk, 'Turkey', p 358.
83. Lewis, The Emergence, pp 299-300; Weisband, Turkish Foreign Policy, p 236; Sarinay Turkiye'nin, p 38; Okte, Tarlik Vergisi, pp 197-213. For background information leading to the cancellation of this tax see also: L. V. Thomas and Richard N. Frye, The United States and Turkey and Iran (Cambridge, MA: 1951), pp 95-98. Kirk, 'Turkey', p 358.
84. Lewis, The Emergence, pp 299-300; Weisband, Turkish Foreign Policy, p 236; Sarinay Turkiye'nin, p 38; Okte, Tarlik Vergisi, pp 197-213. For background information leading to the cancellation of this tax see also: L. V. Thomas and Richard N. Frye, The United States and Turkey and Iran (Cambridge, MA: 1951), pp 95-98. Kirk, 'Turkey', p 358.
85. Lewis, The Emergence, pp 299-300; Weisband, Turkish Foreign Policy, p 236; Sarinay Turkiye'nin, p 38; Okte, Tarlik Vergisi, pp 197-213. For background information leading to the cancellation of this tax see also: L. V. Thomas and Richard N. Frye, The United States and Turkey and Iran (Cambridge, MA: 1951), pp 95-98. Kirk, 'Turkey', p 358.
86. Sadak, 'Turkey Faces', p 457. At the beginning of March 1941, Hitler disclosed to the Turkish Ambassador in Berlin, Husrev Gerede, some information on his conversation with Molotov and Russian designs on the Straits in part, and Turkey in general. But the full document concerning the conversation would be published by Germany upon a Turkish newspaper's urging, in order to prove the existence of such a Russian design. HMSO, DGFP, S.D. Vol XIII, p 304.
87. Sadak, 'Turkey Faces', p 457. At the beginning of March 1941, Hitler disclosed to the Turkish Ambassador in Berlin, Husrev Gerede, some information on his conversation with Molotov and Russian designs on the Straits in part, and Turkey in general. But the full document concerning the conversation would be published by Germany upon a Turkish newspaper's urging, in order to prove the existence of such a Russian design. HMSO, DGFP, S.D. Vol XIII, p 304.
88. Lewis, The Emergence, pp 284, 471, 484.
89. Ataturk Kultur Dil ve Tarih Yuksek Kurumu- Ataturk Arastirma Merkezi, ed., Ataturk'un Soylev ve Demecleri, Vol I-III (Ankara: Turk Tarih Kurumu Basimevi, 1989), in Vol III, pp 134-135.
90. For the political report by von Papen addressed to the German Foreign Ministry see: HMSO, DGFP, S.D. Vol XIII, pp 174-178. Knatchbull-Hugessen, Diplomat, p 168.
91. For the political report by von Papen addressed to the German Foreign Ministry see: HMSO, DGFP, S.D. Vol XIII, pp 174-178. Knatchbull-Hugessen, Diplomat, p 168.
92. HMSO, DGFP, S.D. Vol XIII, p 175.
93. H. Ulman and O. Sander, 'Turk Dis Politikasina Yon Veren Etkenler 1923-1968', Part II, Siyasal Bilgiler Fakultesi Dergisi, Vol XXVII, No 1, March 1972, p 4.
94. HMSO, DGFP, S.D. Vol XIII, p 175.
95. Ibid., p 175.
96. Ibid, pp 177-178 (emphasis added).
97. For an excellent review of Turkish newspapers during the Second World War see C. Kocak, 'Ikinci Dunya Savasi ve Turk Basini', Tarih ve Toplum, No 35, November 1986, pp 29-34.
98. Ulus, 11 July 1941 as cited in HMSO, DGFP, S.D. Vol XIII, pp 175-176.
99. Ulus, 11 July 1941 as cited in HMSO, DGFP, S.D. Vol XIII, pp 175-176.
100. Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, p 123.
101. H. Howard, Turkey, the Straits and US Policy (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1974), pp 156.
102. Ibid, pp 167.
103. HMSO, DGFP, S.D. Vol XIII, p 603; Howard, Turkey, the Straits and US Policy, p 166.
104. HMSO, DGFP, S.D. Vol XIII, p 603; Howard, Turkey, the Straits and US Policy, p 166.
105. Erkin, Turk-Soviet, p 190.
106. Ibid, pp 188-190.
107. Ibid, p 191.
108. Ibid, pp 191-192. During his service in Turkey as German Ambassador von Papen was nicknamed the 'Angel of Peace'. Knatchbull-Hugessen, Diplomat, p 168. Turkish policy-makers believed him to be a sincere man and an anti-Bolshevik. Ibid, pp 146, 150-151. Erkin also records that von Papen was alway as anxious about the future of Bolshevism as much as Germany's own fate. Erkin Turk-Soviet, pp 176, 191-192.
109. Ibid, pp 191-192. During his service in Turkey as German Ambassador von Papen was nicknamed the 'Angel of Peace'. Knatchbull-Hugessen, Diplomat, p 168. Turkish policy-makers believed him to be a sincere man and an anti-Bolshevik. Ibid, pp 146, 150-151. Erkin also records that von Papen was alway as anxious about the future of Bolshevism as much as Germany's own fate. Erkin Turk-Soviet, pp 176, 191-192.
110. Ibid, pp 191-192. During his service in Turkey as German Ambassador von Papen was nicknamed the 'Angel of Peace'. Knatchbull-Hugessen, Diplomat, p 168. Turkish policy-makers believed him to be a sincere man and an anti-Bolshevik. Ibid, pp 146, 150-151. Erkin also records that von Papen was alway as anxious about the future of Bolshevism as much as Germany's own fate. Erkin Turk-Soviet, pp 176, 191-192.
111. Ibid, pp 191-192. During his service in Turkey as German Ambassador von Papen was nicknamed the 'Angel of Peace'. Knatchbull-Hugessen, Diplomat, p 168. Turkish policy-makers believed him to be a sincere man and an anti-Bolshevik. Ibid, pp 146, 150-151. Erkin also records that von Papen was alway as anxious about the future of Bolshevism as much as Germany's own fate. Erkin Turk-Soviet, pp 176, 191-192.
112. Ibid, p 192.
113. Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, p 134.