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Volumn 48, Issue 6, 2008, Pages 889-910

Ethnicity, conflict, and history in Burma: The myths of Panglong

Author keywords

Burma; Conflict; Ethnic; Myanmar; Panglong

Indexed keywords

ETHNIC MINORITY; ETHNICITY; HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE; SOCIAL CONFLICT;

EID: 58249088875     PISSN: 00044687     EISSN: 1533838X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1525/as.2008.48.6.889     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (100)

References (59)
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    • The Burman Military: Holding the Country Together?
    • Joseph Silverstein, ed, Ithaca, N. Y, Cornell Southeast Asia Program
    • Chao-Tzang Yawnghwe, "The Burman Military: Holding the Country Together?" in Joseph Silverstein, ed., Independent Burma at Forty Years: Six Assessments (Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell Southeast Asia Program, 1989), p. 101.
    • (1989) Independent Burma at Forty Years: Six Assessments , pp. 101
    • Yawnghwe, C.-T.1
  • 2
    • 58249083722 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Federal Constitution (Draft)
    • See, for example, the federal constitution proposed in Ethnic Nationalities Council (Union of Burma, _(Draft)_Burmese.pdf>, accessed March 14
    • See, for example, the federal constitution proposed in Ethnic Nationalities Council (Union of Burma), "Federal Constitution (Draft)," 2006, , accessed March 14, 2007.
    • (2006)
  • 3
    • 4344620458 scopus 로고
    • Perceptions of Ethnicity in the Politics of Burma
    • Robert Taylor, "Perceptions of Ethnicity in the Politics of Burma," Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science 10:1 (1982), p. 8.
    • (1982) Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science , vol.10 , Issue.1 , pp. 8
    • Taylor, R.1
  • 5
    • 0012389224 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ethnic Groups, Ethnicity
    • Thomas J. Barfield, ed, Oxford: Basil Blackwell
    • Charles Keyes, "Ethnic Groups, Ethnicity," in Thomas J. Barfield, ed., The Blackwell Dictionary of Anthropology (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1997).
    • (1997) The Blackwell Dictionary of Anthropology
    • Keyes, C.1
  • 6
    • 0007325125 scopus 로고
    • The Nation as Invented Tradition
    • John Hutchinson and Anthony D. Smith, eds, Oxford: Oxford University Press
    • Eric Hobsbawm, "The Nation as Invented Tradition," in Nationalism John Hutchinson and Anthony D. Smith, eds. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994).
    • (1994) Nationalism
    • Hobsbawm, E.1
  • 9
    • 33749021963 scopus 로고
    • On Collective Memory, Lewis A
    • Chicago: University of Chicago Press
    • Maurice Halbwachs, On Collective Memory, Lewis A. Coser, tr. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).
    • (1992) Coser, tr
    • Halbwachs, M.1
  • 10
    • 58249088135 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • It is important to make the distinction between Burman or Bama, which is used to refer to the majority ethnic group in Burma, and Burmese, which is a more contested term, used to designate an institution of the Burmese state or the people contained within its borders. This article will also discuss various other ethnic groups in Burma, including the Karen, Shan, Chin, Kachin, Karenni, Mon, Arakanese, Naga, and Wa. For an overview of the histories of these various groups, beyond the scope of this article, consult Martin Smith, Ethnic Groups in Burma (London: Anti-Slavery International, 1994).
    • It is important to make the distinction between "Burman" or "Bama," which is used to refer to the majority ethnic group in Burma, and "Burmese," which is a more contested term, used to designate an institution of the Burmese state or the people contained within its borders. This article will also discuss various other ethnic groups in Burma, including the Karen, Shan, Chin, Kachin, Karenni, Mon, Arakanese, Naga, and Wa. For an overview of the histories of these various groups, beyond the scope of this article, consult Martin Smith, Ethnic Groups in Burma (London: Anti-Slavery International, 1994).
  • 11
    • 58249093235 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • At this time, the Karenni State was officially considered to be an independent territory, although it was subordinate to the British in certain respects
    • At this time, the Karenni State was officially considered to be an independent territory, although it was subordinate to the British in certain respects.
  • 12
    • 84974118189 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For a skeptical view on the degree of pre-colonial ethnic conflict in Burma, see Victor B. Lieberman, Reinterpreting Burmese History, Comparative Studies in Society and History 29:1 (January 1987).
    • For a skeptical view on the degree of pre-colonial ethnic conflict in Burma, see Victor B. Lieberman, "Reinterpreting Burmese History," Comparative Studies in Society and History 29:1 (January 1987).
  • 13
    • 0003508953 scopus 로고
    • It is probably incorrect to classify these conflicts as having been based on ethnicity. Identity was constructed primarily around political entities that only later would coalesce into ethnic groups. Even then, these ethnic distinctions were significantly more fluid than they are today. See, for example, Boston: Beacon Press
    • It is probably incorrect to classify these conflicts as having been based on ethnicity. Identity was constructed primarily around political entities that only later would coalesce into ethnic groups. Even then, these "ethnic" distinctions were significantly more fluid than they are today. See, for example, Edmund R. Leach, Political Systems of Highland Burma (Boston: Beacon Press, 1965).
    • (1965) Political Systems of Highland Burma
    • Leach, E.R.1
  • 15
    • 58249088724 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The British Army in Burma was actually the British Indian Army until 1937, when Burma was officially separated from India and the British began constructing a specifically Burmese army.
    • The British Army in Burma was actually the British Indian Army until 1937, when Burma was officially separated from India and the British began constructing a specifically Burmese army.
  • 17
    • 58249088158 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This policy most likely resulted from the greater success that Christian missionaries had among the non-Burman ethnicities. The British would have preferred to work with the graduates of Christian schools, and this group was overwhelmingly non-Burman
    • This policy most likely resulted from the greater success that Christian missionaries had among the non-Burman ethnicities. The British would have preferred to work with the graduates of Christian schools, and this group was overwhelmingly non-Burman.
  • 21
    • 58249090209 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Churchill's comments are cited in Josef Silverstein, Burmese Politics: The Dilemma of National Unity (New Brunswick, N. J.: Rutgers University Press, 1980).
    • Churchill's comments are cited in Josef Silverstein, Burmese Politics: The Dilemma of National Unity (New Brunswick, N. J.: Rutgers University Press, 1980).
  • 23
    • 58249092636 scopus 로고
    • Hugh Tinker, ed, London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office
    • Hugh Tinker, ed., Burma: The Struggle for Independence 1944-1948, vol. 1 (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1984), p. 262.
    • (1984) Burma: The Struggle for Independence 1944-1948 , vol.1 , pp. 262
  • 24
    • 84896218058 scopus 로고
    • Quoted in, The Hague: Martinus Nighoff
    • Quoted in Maung Maung, Aung San of Burma (The Hague: Martinus Nighoff, 1969), p. 188.
    • (1969) Aung San of Burma , pp. 188
    • Maung, M.1
  • 26
    • 58249092642 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • John Leyden, quoted in Tinker, Burma, 2, p. 294.
    • John Leyden, quoted in Tinker, Burma, vol. 2, p. 294.
  • 27
    • 58249088723 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, for example, Ethnic Nationalities Council Union of Burma, accessed March 14, 2007
    • See, for example, Ethnic Nationalities Council (Union of Burma), "Unity in Diversity (60th Anniversary of the Panglong Agreement)," 2007, , accessed March 14, 2007.
    • (2007) Unity in Diversity (60th Anniversary of the Panglong Agreement)
  • 28
    • 58249087014 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The full text of the agreement is cited in many sources, including Tinker, Burma, pp. 404-05.
    • The full text of the agreement is cited in many sources, including Tinker, Burma, pp. 404-05.
  • 29
    • 58249085173 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Union of Burma, Rangoon: Innwa Publishing House
    • Union of Burma, The 1947 Constitution and the Nationalities: Vol. 1 (Rangoon: Innwa Publishing House, 1999), p. 145.
    • (1999) The 1947 Constitution and the Nationalities , vol.1 , pp. 145
  • 30
    • 58249093248 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Tinker, Burma
    • Tinker, Burma.
  • 31
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    • Quoted in, Bombay: Asia Publishing House
    • Quoted in Maung Maung, Burma and General Ne Win (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1962), p. 149.
    • (1962) Burma and General Ne Win , pp. 149
    • Maung, M.1
  • 32
    • 58249090798 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Josef Silverstein, ed., The Political Legacy of Aung San (Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell Southeast Asia Program, 1993), especially pp. 96-97. Stalin's frequently cited essay restricts a nation to a historically evolved, stable community of language, territory, economic life, and psychological make-up manifested in a community of culture. The full text can be found in Joseph Stalin, The Nation, in Nationalism John Hutchinson and Anthony D. Smith, eds. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 18-21.
    • Josef Silverstein, ed., The Political Legacy of Aung San (Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell Southeast Asia Program, 1993), especially pp. 96-97. Stalin's frequently cited essay restricts a nation to a "historically evolved, stable community of language, territory, economic life, and psychological make-up manifested in a community of culture." The full text can be found in Joseph Stalin, "The Nation," in Nationalism John Hutchinson and Anthony D. Smith, eds. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 18-21.
  • 38
    • 58249089308 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A small contingent of Kachin Rifles did defect from the Burmese Army in early 1949 to join the Karen uprising, but it met with only limited support from the general population and did not trigger a more widespread rebellion among the Kachin at that time.
    • A small contingent of Kachin Rifles did defect from the Burmese Army in early 1949 to join the Karen uprising, but it met with only limited support from the general population and did not trigger a more widespread rebellion among the Kachin at that time.
  • 39
    • 58249087013 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Chin rebellion did not become organized as such until the mid-1960s, but many ethnic Chin participated in the insurgencies of various groups in the neighboring state of Arakan, as well as with the communists.
    • The Chin rebellion did not become organized as such until the mid-1960s, but many ethnic Chin participated in the insurgencies of various groups in the neighboring state of Arakan, as well as with the communists.
  • 40
    • 58249088157 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Books like Donald Smeaton, The Loyal Karen of Burma (London: K. Paul, Trench, and Co., 1887), added to Karen beliefs that they enjoyed a privileged position within the British colonial state and would be rewarded for their service.
    • Books like Donald Smeaton, The Loyal Karen of Burma (London: K. Paul, Trench, and Co., 1887), added to Karen beliefs that they enjoyed a privileged position within the British colonial state and would be rewarded for their service.
  • 42
    • 58249093834 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This analysis certainly does not exhaust the list of ethnic groups that have grievances as a result of exclusion from Panglong. Although the present article is limited by both space and sources, a more complete study would include the perspectives of the Lahu, Palaung, Pao, and other smaller groups that are often subsumed under more dominant ethnicities
    • This analysis certainly does not exhaust the list of ethnic groups that have grievances as a result of exclusion from Panglong. Although the present article is limited by both space and sources, a more complete study would include the perspectives of the Lahu, Palaung, Pao, and other smaller groups that are often subsumed under more dominant ethnicities.
  • 44
    • 58249091421 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Human Rights Watch, Burma: The Rohingya Muslims: Ending a Cycle of Exodus? (New York: Human Rights Watch/Asia, 1996).
    • Human Rights Watch, Burma: The Rohingya Muslims: Ending a Cycle of Exodus? (New York: Human Rights Watch/Asia, 1996).
  • 45
    • 58249093247 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Quoted in
    • Quoted in Tinker, Burma, p. 487.
    • Burma , pp. 487
    • Tinker1
  • 46
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    • The Development of Kayah National Identity
    • Uta Gardner and Jens Lorenz, eds, Hamburg: Munster
    • Jean-Marc Rastorfer, "The Development of Kayah National Identity," in Tradition and Modernity in Myanmar, Uta Gardner and Jens Lorenz, eds. (Hamburg: Munster, 1994).
    • (1994) Tradition and Modernity in Myanmar
    • Rastorfer, J.-M.1
  • 47
  • 48
    • 0013497524 scopus 로고
    • London: Penguin Books Ltd
    • Aung San Suu Kyi, Freedom from Fear (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1995), p. 223.
    • (1995) Freedom from Fear , pp. 223
    • San, A.1    Kyi, S.2
  • 50
    • 58249086389 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Charles Cruickshank, quoted in Andrew Selth, The Anti-Fascist Resistance in Burma, 1942-1945: The Racial Dimension, Occasional Paper 14, Center for Southeast Asian Studies (Townsville, Old.: James Cook University of North Queensland, 1983), p. 16.
    • Charles Cruickshank, quoted in Andrew Selth, The Anti-Fascist Resistance in Burma, 1942-1945: The Racial Dimension, Occasional Paper 14, Center for Southeast Asian Studies (Townsville, Old.: James Cook University of North Queensland, 1983), p. 16.
  • 52
    • 40649127284 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Making a Name for Themselves: Karen Identity and the Politicization of Ethnicity in Burma
    • Jessica Harriden, "Making a Name for Themselves: Karen Identity and the Politicization of Ethnicity in Burma," Journal of Burma Studies 7 (2002), p. 86.
    • (2002) Journal of Burma Studies , vol.7 , pp. 86
    • Harriden, J.1
  • 53
    • 58249092023 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Other analyses of factionalism within ethnic insurgency groups are Ashley South, Karen Nationalist Communities: The 'Problem' of Diversity, Contemporary Southeast Asia 29:1 (April 2007)
    • Other analyses of factionalism within ethnic insurgency groups are Ashley South, "Karen Nationalist Communities: The 'Problem' of Diversity," Contemporary Southeast Asia 29:1 (April 2007)
  • 54
    • 58249093244 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Factionalism and the Ethnic Insurgent Organizations
    • Working Paper, no. 356 Canberra: The Australian National University
    • and Desmond Ball and Hazel Lang, "Factionalism and the Ethnic Insurgent Organizations," Strategic and Defense Studies Center, Working Paper, no. 356 (Canberra: The Australian National University, 2001).
    • (2001) Strategic and Defense Studies Center
    • Ball, D.1    Lang, H.2
  • 55
    • 58249088150 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, for example, The New Panglong Initiative, 2001, , accessed July 16, 2006; and Khin Maung Win, Federalism and Burma, Legal Issues on Burma Journal (Bangkok), no. 9 (August 2001).
    • See, for example, The New Panglong Initiative, 2001, , accessed July 16, 2006; and Khin Maung Win, "Federalism and Burma," Legal Issues on Burma Journal (Bangkok), no. 9 (August 2001).
  • 58
    • 58249091413 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Although the government officially changed the name to Myanmar in June 1989, most people outside of the country continue to use the name Burma either in solidarity with the democratic opposition, as a form of protest against the illegitimacy of the present government, or simply as a matter of convenience and continuity
    • Although the government officially changed the name to "Myanmar" in June 1989, most people outside of the country continue to use the name "Burma" either in solidarity with the democratic opposition, as a form of protest against the illegitimacy of the present government, or simply as a matter of convenience and continuity.


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