-
1
-
-
0347617998
-
War Crimes Panel Finds Croat Troops "Cleansed" the Serbs
-
21 Mar
-
Bonner, 'War Crimes Panel Finds Croat Troops "Cleansed" the Serbs', New York Times, 21 Mar. 1999.
-
(1999)
New York Times
-
-
Bonner1
-
3
-
-
58149382538
-
Johnston and Broder, 'F.B.I. Says Guards Killed 14 Iraqis Without Cause',
-
7 Nov
-
Johnston and Broder, 'F.B.I. Says Guards Killed 14 Iraqis Without Cause', New York Times, 7 Nov. 2007
-
(2007)
New York Times
-
-
-
4
-
-
58149382536
-
Security Contractors in Iraq under Scrutiny after Shootings
-
10 Sept
-
Finer, 'Security Contractors in Iraq under Scrutiny after Shootings', Washington Post, 10 Sept. 2005.
-
(2005)
Washington Post
-
-
Finer1
-
5
-
-
33748114850
-
War Crimes
-
See, A. Cassese, P. Gaeta, and J.R.W.D. Jones eds, at
-
See Bothe, 'War Crimes', in A. Cassese, P. Gaeta, and J.R.W.D. Jones (eds), The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. A Commentary (2002), at 387, 388.
-
(2002)
The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. A Commentary
-
-
Bothe1
-
6
-
-
33644799018
-
No Contractors Facing Abu Ghraib Abuse Charges
-
9 Aug
-
Spiegel, 'No Contractors Facing Abu Ghraib Abuse Charges', Financial Times, 9 Aug. 2005.
-
(2005)
Financial Times
-
-
Spiegel1
-
7
-
-
58149393118
-
-
See generally Human Rights First, 'Private Security Contractors at War. Ending the Culture of Impunity' (2008), at 6.
-
See generally Human Rights First, 'Private Security Contractors at War. Ending the Culture of Impunity' (2008), at 6.
-
-
-
-
8
-
-
22544487340
-
US Pair's Role in Bombing Shown
-
16 Mar
-
Miller,'US Pair's Role in Bombing Shown', Los Angeles Times, 16 Mar. 2003.
-
(2003)
Los Angeles Times
-
-
Miller1
-
9
-
-
0010200044
-
An Army of One's Own
-
Feb
-
Rubin, 'An Army of One's Own', Harper's, Feb. 1997
-
(1997)
Harper's
-
-
Rubin1
-
10
-
-
38949087571
-
Government for Hire: Privatizing Foreign Affairs and the Problem of Accountability under International Law', 47
-
at
-
Dickinson, 'Government for Hire: Privatizing Foreign Affairs and the Problem of Accountability under International Law', 47 Williarn and Mary L Rev (2005) 137, at 153.
-
(2005)
Williarn and Mary L Rev
, vol.137
, pp. 153
-
-
Dickinson1
-
11
-
-
58149399287
-
Private Security and Military Companies under the International Law of Armed Conflict
-
T. Jäger and G. Kümmel eds, at
-
Schaller, 'Private Security and Military Companies under the International Law of Armed Conflict', in T. Jäger and G. Kümmel (eds), Private Military and Security Companies. Chances, Problems, Pitfalls and Prospects (2006), at 345
-
(2006)
Private Military and Security Companies. Chances, Problems, Pitfalls and Prospects
, pp. 345
-
-
Schaller1
-
13
-
-
58149378253
-
-
Despite some academic opinion to the contrary, the fact that PMC personnel might end up taking part in the hostilities is not a precondition for combatant status, but a consequence thereof (for a different view see, e.g., Boldt, 'Outsourcing War - Private Military Companies and International Humanitarian Law', 47 German Ybk Int'l L (2004) 502, at 512). In any case, where the hiring state has designated PMC personnel as civilians accompanying the armed forces (Art. 4(4) of Geneva Convention (GC) III) or it is otherwise clear that they are not authorized to take part in the hostilities, there is no room for any deviating interpretation of their status. Moreover, only PMC personnel hired by states can be combatants. PMCs hired by NGOs or companies can only qualify as civilians.
-
Despite some academic opinion to the contrary, the fact that PMC personnel might end up taking part in the hostilities is not a precondition for combatant status, but a consequence thereof (for a different view see, e.g., Boldt, 'Outsourcing War - Private Military Companies and International Humanitarian Law', 47 German Ybk Int'l L (2004) 502, at 512). In any case, where the hiring state has designated PMC personnel as civilians accompanying the armed forces (Art. 4(4) of Geneva Convention (GC) III) or it is otherwise clear that they are not authorized to take part in the hostilities, there is no room for any deviating interpretation of their status. Moreover, only PMC personnel hired by states can be combatants. PMCs hired by NGOs or companies can only qualify as civilians.
-
-
-
-
14
-
-
58149390070
-
-
ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Akayesu, ICTR-9 6-4, judgment, 2 Sept. 1998, at para. 631
-
ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Akayesu, ICTR-9 6-4, judgment, 2 Sept. 1998, at para. 631
-
-
-
-
15
-
-
58149398566
-
-
ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kayishema and Ruzindana, ICTR-95-1, judgment and sentence, 21 May 1999, at paras 174-176.
-
ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kayishema and Ruzindana, ICTR-95-1, judgment and sentence, 21 May 1999, at paras 174-176.
-
-
-
-
16
-
-
58149390073
-
The Contribution of Positive Obligations to State Responsibility for PMSCs, with Special Emphasis on the Duty to Prevent Human Rights Violations
-
On the question of attribution of PMC conduct see, this issue
-
On the question of attribution of PMC conduct see Hoppe, 'The Contribution of Positive Obligations to State Responsibility for PMSCs, with Special Emphasis on the Duty to Prevent Human Rights Violations', this issue
-
-
-
Hoppe1
-
17
-
-
58149393112
-
-
Lehnardt, Private Military Companies and State Responsibility, in Chesterman and Lehnardt, supra note 9, at 143
-
Lehnardt, 'Private Military Companies and State Responsibility', in Chesterman and Lehnardt, supra note 9, at 143
-
-
-
-
19
-
-
58149384381
-
-
This question is generally discussed in the context of the so-called nexus requirement: See in particular ICTR Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Akayesu, IT 9 6-4, judgment, 1 June 2001, at para. 444
-
This question is generally discussed in the context of the so-called nexus requirement: See in particular ICTR Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Akayesu, IT 9 6-4, judgment, 1 June 2001, at para. 444,
-
-
-
-
20
-
-
58149390074
-
-
and infra section B.
-
and infra section B.
-
-
-
-
21
-
-
58149399289
-
-
See ibid., at para. 443.
-
See ibid., at para. 443.
-
-
-
-
22
-
-
58149378279
-
-
ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Musema, ICTR-96-13, judgment, 27 Jan. 2000, at para. 270.
-
ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Musema, ICTR-96-13, judgment, 27 Jan. 2000, at para. 270.
-
-
-
-
23
-
-
58149388162
-
-
Ibid., at para. 270.
-
Ibid., at para. 270.
-
-
-
-
24
-
-
58149374512
-
-
International Military Tribunal, United States v. Krauch and 22 others (I.G. Farben Case), 10 L Reps of Trials of War Criminals (LRTWC) (1947) 1
-
International Military Tribunal, United States v. Krauch and 22 others (I.G. Farben Case), 10 L Reps of Trials of War Criminals (LRTWC) (1947) 1
-
-
-
-
25
-
-
58149386331
-
United States v
-
International Military Tribunal Nuremberg
-
International Military Tribunal Nuremberg, United States v. Flick, judgment, 9 LRTWC 1
-
Flick, judgment, 9 LRTWC
, vol.1
-
-
-
26
-
-
58149384373
-
-
General Tribunal ofthe Military Government ofthe French Zone of Occupation in Germany, XIV Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals Under Control Council Law
-
General Tribunal ofthe Military Government ofthe French Zone of Occupation in Germany, France v. Roechling et al., XIV Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals Under Control Council Law No 10 (1952) 109
-
(1952)
France v. Roechling et al
, Issue.10
, pp. 109
-
-
-
27
-
-
58149396797
-
-
British Military Court Hamburg, United Kingdom v. Tesch and other (Zyklon B Case), 1946, 1 LRTWC 93
-
British Military Court Hamburg, United Kingdom v. Tesch and other (Zyklon B Case), 1946, 1 LRTWC 93
-
-
-
-
28
-
-
58149388149
-
-
British Military Court Essen, United Kingdom v. Heyer and others (Essen Lynching Case), judgment, 22 Dec. 1945, 1 LRTWC (1947) 88
-
British Military Court Essen, United Kingdom v. Heyer and others (Essen Lynching Case), judgment, 22 Dec. 1945, 1 LRTWC (1947) 88
-
-
-
-
29
-
-
58149382531
-
-
US Military Commission Wiesbaden, US v. Klein and six others (Hadamar Case), judgment, 15 Oct. 1945, 1 LRTWC (1947) 46.
-
US Military Commission Wiesbaden, US v. Klein and six others (Hadamar Case), judgment, 15 Oct. 1945, 1 LRTWC (1947) 46.
-
-
-
-
31
-
-
58149376408
-
-
In favour of the position that all IHL norms bind all individuals regardless of any links to a party to the conflict are E. David, Principes de droit des conflits armes 3rd edn, 2002, at paras 1.195, 4.65
-
In favour of the position that all IHL norms bind all individuals regardless of any links to a party to the conflict are E. David, Principes de droit des conflits armes (3rd edn, 2002), at paras 1.195, 4.65
-
-
-
-
32
-
-
52649138977
-
Individual Criminal Responsibility for Violations of Article 3 Common to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and of Additional Protocol II Thereto in the Case Law ofthe International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda', 13
-
at
-
Boed, 'Individual Criminal Responsibility for Violations of Article 3 Common to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and of Additional Protocol II Thereto in the Case Law ofthe International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda', 13 Criminal Law Forum (2002) 293, at 316-317
-
(2002)
Criminal Law Forum
, vol.293
, pp. 316-317
-
-
Boed1
-
33
-
-
58149384383
-
-
Provost, supra note 16, at 98
-
Provost, supra note 16, at 98
-
-
-
-
35
-
-
58149380670
-
-
See also UK Ministry of Defence, The Manual of the Law of Armed Conflict (2005), at para. 16.26.1
-
See also UK Ministry of Defence, The Manual of the Law of Armed Conflict (2005), at para. 16.26.1
-
-
-
-
36
-
-
58149380671
-
-
J.-M. Henckaerts and L. Doswald-Beck eds, at
-
J.-M. Henckaerts and L. Doswald-Beck (eds), Customary International Humanitarian Law (2005), at 573
-
(2005)
Customary International Humanitarian Law
, pp. 573
-
-
-
37
-
-
58149399278
-
War Crimes Committed in Non-International Conflict and the Emerging System ofInternational Criminal Justice', 30
-
It is, of course, possible for domestic criminal law to consider any act committedby civilians a war crime which, as a matter of international law, would not be seen as such, at
-
Kreß, 'War Crimes Committed in Non-International Conflict and the Emerging System ofInternational Criminal Justice', 30 Israel Ybk on Hurnan Rights (2001) 103, at 123. It is, of course, possible for domestic criminal law to consider any act committedby civilians a war crime which, as a matter of international law, would not be seen as such.
-
(2001)
Israel Ybk on Hurnan Rights
, vol.103
, pp. 123
-
-
Kreß1
-
38
-
-
58149380668
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., IT-96-23, judgment, 22 Feb. 2001, at para. 407.
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., IT-96-23, judgment, 22 Feb. 2001, at para. 407.
-
-
-
-
39
-
-
58149399277
-
-
See the similar wording of Art. 4A(2) of GC III, which requires for the purposes of combatant status that the individual 'belongs to a Party to the conflict'. The ICTY Appeals Chamber found that this criterion required control over the individual by a party to the conflict: ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, IT-94-1, judgment, 15 July 199 9, at para. 95.
-
See the similar wording of Art. 4A(2) of GC III, which requires for the purposes of combatant status that the individual 'belongs to a Party to the conflict'. The ICTY Appeals Chamber found that this criterion required control over the individual by a party to the conflict: ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, IT-94-1, judgment, 15 July 199 9, at para. 95.
-
-
-
-
40
-
-
58149393097
-
-
Given the purpose of the provision the better view is that it merely necessitates a factual link: J. de Preux, Commentary: III Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War (19 60), at 53. However, since Art. 4 of GC III grants rights to individuals, it is doubtful whether it can be relied on as an argument supporting the imposition of obligations.
-
Given the purpose of the provision the better view is that it merely necessitates a factual link: J. de Preux, Commentary: III Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War (19 60), at 53. However, since Art. 4 of GC III grants rights to individuals, it is doubtful whether it can be relied on as an argument supporting the imposition of obligations.
-
-
-
-
41
-
-
58149396791
-
-
Further support for this position can be found in the wording of Art. 8 of the ICC statute, which arguably does not limit the scope ofperpetrators, although the wording ('within the established framework of international law') could also be interpreted to refer to the question whether civilians are bound by IHL. See K. Dörmann, Elements of War Crimes under the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (2003), at 391.
-
Further support for this position can be found in the wording of Art. 8 of the ICC statute, which arguably does not limit the scope ofperpetrators, although the wording ('within the established framework of international law') could also be interpreted to refer to the question whether civilians are bound by IHL. See K. Dörmann, Elements of War Crimes under the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (2003), at 391.
-
-
-
-
42
-
-
58149388148
-
-
G. Werle, Principles of International Criminal Law (2005), at para. 850.
-
G. Werle, Principles of International Criminal Law (2005), at para. 850.
-
-
-
-
43
-
-
58149382526
-
-
See also ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, IT-94-1, judgment, 7 May 1997, at para. 573.
-
See also ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, IT-94-1, judgment, 7 May 1997, at para. 573.
-
-
-
-
44
-
-
58149380669
-
Humanitarian Law and the Direct Participation in Hostilities by Private Contractors or Civilian Employees', 5
-
See, at
-
See Schmitt, 'Humanitarian Law and the Direct Participation in Hostilities by Private Contractors or Civilian Employees', 5 Chicago J Int'l L (2004) 511, at 539.
-
(2004)
Chicago J Int'l L
, vol.511
, pp. 539
-
-
Schmitt1
-
45
-
-
58149378258
-
-
See ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v Gotovina, Čermak and Markač, IT-06-90-PT, witness testimony, 26 June 2003, at 23121, available at www.un.org/icty/transe54/030626IT.htm.
-
See ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v Gotovina, Čermak and Markač, IT-06-90-PT, witness testimony, 26 June 2003, at 23121, available at www.un.org/icty/transe54/030626IT.htm.
-
-
-
-
47
-
-
58149398475
-
The C.I.A.'s Travel Agent
-
30 Oct
-
Mayer, 'The C.I.A.'s Travel Agent', The New Yorker, 30 Oct. 2006
-
(2006)
The New Yorker
-
-
Mayer1
-
50
-
-
58149390060
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, supra note 38
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, supra note 38.
-
-
-
-
51
-
-
58149374497
-
-
Eser, Individual Criminal Responsibility, in Cassese, Gaeta, and Jones, supra note 4, at 767, 791
-
Eser, 'Individual Criminal Responsibility', in Cassese, Gaeta, and Jones, supra note 4, at 767, 791.
-
-
-
-
52
-
-
58149382525
-
-
ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., IT-96-23 & IT-96-23/1A, judgment, 12 June 2002, at para. 58.
-
ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., IT-96-23 & IT-96-23/1A, judgment, 12 June 2002, at para. 58.
-
-
-
-
53
-
-
58149398533
-
-
The determination of the existence of an armed conflict and its characterization can be an additional source of uncertainty. PMCs operate in both non-international and international armed conflicts. While the ICC Statute expressly recognizes that war crimes can be committed also during a non-international conflict (Art. 8(2)(e) and f, as a matter of customary international law the criminal nature of breaches of common Art. 3 of GCI IV and of Additional Protocol II is less established than in the context of international armed conflicts. Yet the ICTY Appeals Chamber in the Tadic case held that customary international law imposes criminal responsibility for 'serious violations of common Art. 3, as supplemented by other general principles and rules on the protection ofvictims ofinternal armed conflict, ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, IT-94-1, decision on the defence motion for interlocutory appeal on jurisdiction, 2 Oct. 1995, at paras 87-93
-
The determination of the existence of an armed conflict and its characterization can be an additional source of uncertainty. PMCs operate in both non-international and international armed conflicts. While the ICC Statute expressly recognizes that war crimes can be committed also during a non-international conflict (Art. 8(2)(e) and (f), as a matter of customary international law the criminal nature of breaches of common Art. 3 of GCI IV and of Additional Protocol II is less established than in the context of international armed conflicts. Yet the ICTY Appeals Chamber in the Tadic case held that customary international law imposes criminal responsibility for 'serious violations of common Art. 3, as supplemented by other general principles and rules on the protection ofvictims ofinternal armed conflict': ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, IT-94-1, decision on the defence motion for interlocutory appeal on jurisdiction, 2 Oct. 1995, at paras 87-93.
-
-
-
-
55
-
-
58149384370
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Aleksovski, IT-9 5-14/1, judgment, 25 June 1999, at para. 45.
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Aleksovski, IT-9 5-14/1, judgment, 25 June 1999, at para. 45.
-
-
-
-
56
-
-
58149386321
-
-
ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., supra note 22, at para. 58
-
ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., supra note 22, at para. 58
-
-
-
-
57
-
-
58149401131
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Vasiljevic, IT-98-32, judgment, 29 Nov. 2002, at para. 25.
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Vasiljevic, IT-98-32, judgment, 29 Nov. 2002, at para. 25.
-
-
-
-
58
-
-
58149396794
-
-
ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, supra note 18, at para. 70
-
ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, supra note 18, at para. 70
-
-
-
-
59
-
-
58149399280
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v Tadic, supra note 20, at para. 573.
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v Tadic, supra note 20, at para. 573.
-
-
-
-
60
-
-
58149393100
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., IT-96-21, judgment, 16 Nov. 1998, at para. 193.
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., IT-96-21, judgment, 16 Nov. 1998, at para. 193.
-
-
-
-
62
-
-
58149380665
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., supra note 18, at para. 568
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., supra note 18, at para. 568
-
-
-
-
63
-
-
58149384368
-
-
also ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, IT-94-1, supra note 20, at para. 573.
-
also ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, IT-94-1, supra note 20, at para. 573.
-
-
-
-
64
-
-
58149401130
-
-
ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., supra note 22, at para. 59
-
ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., supra note 22, at para. 59
-
-
-
-
65
-
-
58149402325
-
-
ICTR Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Rutaganda, ICTR-96-3, judgment, 26 May 2003, at para. 569.
-
ICTR Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Rutaganda, ICTR-96-3, judgment, 26 May 2003, at para. 569.
-
-
-
-
66
-
-
58149376404
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, supra note 20, at para. 573
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, supra note 20, at para. 573
-
-
-
-
67
-
-
58149394977
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Blaškić, IT-95-14, judgment, 3 Mar. 2000, at para. 70.
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Blaškić, IT-95-14, judgment, 3 Mar. 2000, at para. 70.
-
-
-
-
68
-
-
58149399272
-
-
For a different view see ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Akayesu, supra note 10, at para. 640.
-
For a different view see ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Akayesu, supra note 10, at para. 640.
-
-
-
-
69
-
-
27844482987
-
-
But see, at
-
But see A. Bouvier and M. Sassòli, How Does Law Protectin War? Cases, Documents, and Teaching Materials on Contemporary Practice in International Humanitarian Law (2005), at 215.
-
(2005)
How Does Law Protectin War? Cases, Documents, and Teaching Materials on Contemporary Practice in International Humanitarian Law
, pp. 215
-
-
Bouvier, A.1
Sassòli, M.2
-
70
-
-
58149382514
-
-
Art. 5 ICTY Statute stipulates that crimes against humanity must be committed 'in armed conflict'. This nexus has been described by the Appeals Chamber as 'obsolescent', as there is 'no logical or legal basis for this requirement and it has been abandoned in subsequent State practice with respect to crimes against humanity': ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, decision on the defence motion for interlocutory appeal on jurisdiction (supra note 23), at para. 140.
-
Art. 5 ICTY Statute stipulates that crimes against humanity must be committed 'in armed conflict'. This nexus has been described by the Appeals Chamber as 'obsolescent', as there is 'no logical or legal basis for this requirement and it has been abandoned in subsequent State practice with respect to crimes against humanity': ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, decision on the defence motion for interlocutory appeal on jurisdiction (supra note 23), at para. 140.
-
-
-
-
71
-
-
58149374495
-
-
Werle, supra note 20, at para. 667.
-
Werle, supra note 20, at para. 667.
-
-
-
-
73
-
-
58149386316
-
3 ICTR Statute, Art
-
See, ILC Draft Codes of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind
-
See Art. 3 ICTR Statute, Art. 7(1) ICC Statute, Art. 18 ILC Draft Codes of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind (1996).
-
(1996)
7(1) ICC Statute, Art
, vol.18
-
-
Art1
-
74
-
-
58149393096
-
-
ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., supra note 22, at para. 94.
-
ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., supra note 22, at para. 94.
-
-
-
-
75
-
-
58149399276
-
-
ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, supra note 18, at para. 227.
-
ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, supra note 18, at para. 227.
-
-
-
-
76
-
-
58149382524
-
-
Ibid., at para. 196.
-
Ibid., at para. 196.
-
-
-
-
77
-
-
58149393094
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Stakic, IT-97-24, judgment, 31 July 2003, at para 436.
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Stakic, IT-97-24, judgment, 31 July 2003, at para 436.
-
-
-
-
78
-
-
58149388146
-
-
See note 42, at, Art. 2 ()(b) ICC Statute
-
See Eser, supra note 42, at 796; Art. 2 5(3)(b) ICC Statute.
-
supra
, vol.5
, Issue.3
, pp. 796
-
-
Eser1
-
79
-
-
4344658597
-
-
ICTY Statute, Art. 7(1, ICTR Statute, Art. 6(1, Art 129(1) of GC III, Art. 146(1) of GC IV; Art. 25(3)(b) ICC Statute, at
-
A. Cassese, International Criminal Law (2003), at 194; ICTY Statute, Art. 7(1), ICTR Statute, Art. 6(1), Art 129(1) of GC III, Art. 146(1) of GC IV; Art. 25(3)(b) ICC Statute.
-
(2003)
International Criminal Law
, pp. 194
-
-
Cassese, A.1
-
80
-
-
58149378255
-
-
Werle, supra note 20, at para. 357.
-
Werle, supra note 20, at para. 357.
-
-
-
-
81
-
-
58149401129
-
-
Fay Report, supra note 2.
-
Fay Report, supra note 2.
-
-
-
-
82
-
-
58149402320
-
-
See ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Krstić, IT-98-33, judgment, 2 Aug. 2001, at para. 601
-
See ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Krstić, IT-98-33, judgment, 2 Aug. 2001, at para. 601
-
-
-
-
83
-
-
58149399270
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kvočka et al., IT-98-30/1, judgment of 2 Nov. 2001, at para. 243
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kvočka et al., IT-98-30/1, judgment of 2 Nov. 2001, at para. 243
-
-
-
-
84
-
-
58149399269
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Naletilić and Martinović, IT-98-34, judgment, 31 Mar. 2003, at para. 60
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Naletilić and Martinović, IT-98-34, judgment, 31 Mar. 2003, at para. 60
-
-
-
-
85
-
-
58149390054
-
-
ICTR Appeals Chamber, ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Akayesu, supra note 10, at para. 482.
-
ICTR Appeals Chamber, ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Akayesu, supra note 10, at para. 482.
-
-
-
-
86
-
-
58149398547
-
-
ICTY Appeal Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, supra note 18, at para. 229
-
ICTY Appeal Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, supra note 18, at para. 229
-
-
-
-
87
-
-
58149384367
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v Krnojelac, IT-97-25, judgment, 15 Mar. 2002, at para. 88; Art. 25(3)(c) ICC Statute.
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v Krnojelac, IT-97-25, judgment, 15 Mar. 2002, at para. 88; Art. 25(3)(c) ICC Statute.
-
-
-
-
88
-
-
58149393092
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, supra note 20, at para. 688.
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, supra note 20, at para. 688.
-
-
-
-
89
-
-
58149401127
-
-
See Ambos, 'Article 25', in O. Triffterer, Commentary on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court - Observer's Notes, Article by Article (1999), at 481
-
See Ambos, 'Article 25', in O. Triffterer, Commentary on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court - Observer's Notes, Article by Article (1999), at 481
-
-
-
-
90
-
-
84924114771
-
-
at
-
R. Cryer, H. Friman, D. Robinson, and E. Wilmshurst, An Introduction to International Criminal Law and Procedure (2007), at 311.
-
(2007)
An Introduction to International Criminal Law and Procedure
, pp. 311
-
-
Cryer, R.1
Friman, H.2
Robinson, D.3
Wilmshurst, E.4
-
91
-
-
58149390052
-
-
Moreover, there is no such requirement in Art. 25(3)(c) of the ICC Statute.
-
Moreover, there is no such requirement in Art. 25(3)(c) of the ICC Statute.
-
-
-
-
92
-
-
58149386313
-
-
ICTR Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Ntakirutimana, ICTR-96-10, judgment, 13 Dec. 2004, at para. 530; Art. 25(3) (c) ICC Statute.
-
ICTR Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Ntakirutimana, ICTR-96-10, judgment, 13 Dec. 2004, at para. 530; Art. 25(3) (c) ICC Statute.
-
-
-
-
93
-
-
58149398546
-
-
Ibid., at para. 532.
-
Ibid., at para. 532.
-
-
-
-
94
-
-
58149390051
-
-
Art. 25(3)c
-
Art. 25(3)(c).
-
-
-
-
95
-
-
58149384366
-
-
US Supreme Court, United States v. Yamashita, 4 LRTWC(1947) 1, at 15
-
US Supreme Court, United States v. Yamashita, 4 LRTWC(1947) 1, at 15
-
-
-
-
96
-
-
58149398545
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Hadžihasanović et al., IT-01-47, decision of 12 Nov. 2002, at para. 174.
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Hadžihasanović et al., IT-01-47, decision of 12 Nov. 2002, at para. 174.
-
-
-
-
97
-
-
58149393079
-
-
Referring to Nuremberg and Tokyo case law, Art. 86(2) of Additional Protocol (AP)I, and Art. 12 Draft Code of Crimes against Peace and Security of Mankind (UN Doc. A/51/10), the ICTY held that the principle of superior responsibility is established as a matter of customary law in ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Blagojevic & Jokic, IT-02-60, judgment, 9 May 2007, at para. 281
-
Referring to Nuremberg and Tokyo case law, Art. 86(2) of Additional Protocol (AP)I, and Art. 12 Draft Code of Crimes against Peace and Security of Mankind (UN Doc. A/51/10), the ICTY held that the principle of superior responsibility is established as a matter of customary law in ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Blagojevic & Jokic, IT-02-60, judgment, 9 May 2007, at para. 281
-
-
-
-
98
-
-
58149399263
-
-
ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić, IT-96-2 1, judgment, 20 Feb. 2001, at para. 195
-
ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić, IT-96-2 1, judgment, 20 Feb. 2001, at para. 195
-
-
-
-
99
-
-
58149398517
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kordic et al, IT-95-14/2, judgment, 26 Feb. 2001, at para. 441. Art. 86(1) AP I reads:, t]he fact that a breach of the Conventions or of this Protocol was committed by a subordinate does not absolve his superiors from penal or disciplinary responsibility, as the case may be, if they knew, or had information which should have enabled them to conclude in the circumstances at the time, that he was committing or was going to commit such a breach and if they did not take all feasible measures within their power to prevent or repress the breach, The question whether the principle applies also to non-international conflicts was discussed in the Hadžihasanović Case. Both the Trial Chamber and Appeals Chamber found that superiors in non-international conflicts could become responsible, albeit with arguments primarily pertaining to military commanders: ICTY Trial Chamber, IT-01-47, decision, 12 Nov. 2001, at paras 87-88
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kordic et al., IT-95-14/2, judgment, 26 Feb. 2001, at para. 441. Art. 86(1) AP I reads: '[t]he fact that a breach of the Conventions or of this Protocol was committed by a subordinate does not absolve his superiors from penal or disciplinary responsibility, as the case may be, if they knew, or had information which should have enabled them to conclude in the circumstances at the time, that he was committing or was going to commit such a breach and if they did not take all feasible measures within their power to prevent or repress the breach'. The question whether the principle applies also to non-international conflicts was discussed in the Hadžihasanović Case. Both the Trial Chamber and Appeals Chamber found that superiors in non-international conflicts could become responsible, albeit with arguments primarily pertaining to military commanders: ICTY Trial Chamber, IT-01-47, decision, 12 Nov. 2001, at paras 87-88.
-
-
-
-
100
-
-
58149396770
-
-
The question also arises for military commanders who are supervising the theatre of operation in which PMCs operate. Art. 87(1) AP I addresses 'military commanders with respect to members of the armed forces under their command and other persons under their control, On the question of superior responsibility of the person organizing the contract see Doswald-Beck, supra note 9, at 136
-
The question also arises for military commanders who are supervising the theatre of operation in which PMCs operate. Art. 87(1) AP I addresses 'military commanders with respect to members of the armed forces under their command and other persons under their control'. On the question of superior responsibility of the person organizing the contract see Doswald-Beck, supra note 9, at 136.
-
-
-
-
102
-
-
58149399268
-
-
Ibid., at para. 355
-
Ibid., at para. 355
-
-
-
-
103
-
-
58149399265
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Aleksovski, supra note 24, at paras 75, 78.
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Aleksovski, supra note 24, at paras 75, 78.
-
-
-
-
104
-
-
58149396786
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 27, at paras 377-378.
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 27, at paras 377-378.
-
-
-
-
105
-
-
58149396780
-
-
ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 58, at para. 266.
-
ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 58, at para. 266.
-
-
-
-
106
-
-
58149380658
-
-
Ibid., at para. 303.
-
Ibid., at para. 303.
-
-
-
-
107
-
-
58149401126
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Aleksovski, supra note 24, at para. 78.
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Aleksovski, supra note 24, at para. 78.
-
-
-
-
108
-
-
58149390047
-
-
See Art. 28 (2)(b) ICC Statute
-
See Art. 28 (2)(b) ICC Statute
-
-
-
-
109
-
-
58149399251
-
-
ICTRY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Aleksovski, supra note 24, at para. 78
-
ICTRY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Aleksovski, supra note 24, at para. 78
-
-
-
-
110
-
-
58149386304
-
-
ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 56, at para. 378
-
ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 56, at para. 378
-
-
-
-
111
-
-
58149399250
-
-
ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Blaškić, IT-95-14, judgment, 29 July 2004, at para. 67
-
ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Blaškić, IT-95-14, judgment, 29 July 2004, at para. 67
-
-
-
-
112
-
-
58149374483
-
-
ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Semanza, ICTR-97-20, judgment, 15 May 2003, at para. 402
-
ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Semanza, ICTR-97-20, judgment, 15 May 2003, at para. 402
-
-
-
-
113
-
-
58149401116
-
-
ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Ntagerura et al., ICTR-99-46, judgment, 25 Feb. 2004, at para. 628.
-
ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Ntagerura et al., ICTR-99-46, judgment, 25 Feb. 2004, at para. 628.
-
-
-
-
115
-
-
58149388133
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 27, at paras 354, 378
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 27, at paras 354, 378
-
-
-
-
116
-
-
58149393080
-
-
ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Semanza, supra note 66, at para. 402
-
ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Semanza, supra note 66, at para. 402
-
-
-
-
117
-
-
58149376386
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kordic at al., supra note 58, at paras 414-415.
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kordic at al., supra note 58, at paras 414-415.
-
-
-
-
118
-
-
58149382512
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Hadžihasanović, supra note 58, at para. 85
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Hadžihasanović, supra note 58, at para. 85
-
-
-
-
119
-
-
77955253166
-
Civilian Responsibility in the Kordic Case', 50
-
at
-
Nybondas, 'Civilian Responsibility in the Kordic Case', 50 Netherlands Int'l L Rev (2003) 59, at 64
-
(2003)
Netherlands Int'l L Rev
, vol.59
, pp. 64
-
-
Nybondas1
-
120
-
-
36549054269
-
Command Responsibility in the Case Law of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda', 13
-
at
-
Williamson, 'Command Responsibility in the Case Law of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda', 13 Criminal Law Forum (2002) 365, at 368.
-
(2002)
Criminal Law Forum
, vol.365
, pp. 368
-
-
Williamson1
-
121
-
-
58149394964
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Aleksovski, supra note 24, at paras 77, 78.
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Aleksovski, supra note 24, at paras 77, 78.
-
-
-
-
122
-
-
58149398537
-
-
ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Musema, supra note 14, at para. 880.
-
ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Musema, supra note 14, at para. 880.
-
-
-
-
123
-
-
58149393073
-
-
In a third case concerning the medical director of a hospital the ICTR found there was not sufficient evidence to establish effective control: ICTR Trial Chamber, Ntakirutimana & Ntakirutimana, IT-96-10 & IT-96-17, judgment, 21 Feb. 2003, at paras 434, 821
-
In a third case concerning the medical director of a hospital the ICTR found there was not sufficient evidence to establish effective control: ICTR Trial Chamber, Ntakirutimana & Ntakirutimana, IT-96-10 & IT-96-17, judgment, 21 Feb. 2003, at paras 434, 821.
-
-
-
-
124
-
-
58149398536
-
-
See, however, ICTR Trial Chamber, Nahimana et al., IT-99-52, judgment, 3 Dec. 2003, at para. 976.
-
See, however, ICTR Trial Chamber, Nahimana et al., IT-99-52, judgment, 3 Dec. 2003, at para. 976.
-
-
-
-
125
-
-
58149386303
-
-
Ibid., at paras 567, 970, and 972
-
Ibid., at paras 567, 970, and 972
-
-
-
-
126
-
-
58149380648
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić, supra note 27, at para. 377.
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić, supra note 27, at para. 377.
-
-
-
-
127
-
-
58149384360
-
-
ICTR Appeals Chamber, Nahimana et al., IT-99-52, judgment, 28 Nov. 2007, at para. 785.
-
ICTR Appeals Chamber, Nahimana et al., IT-99-52, judgment, 28 Nov. 2007, at para. 785.
-
-
-
-
128
-
-
58149374476
-
-
The two types of liability are separate: A superior's failure to prevent the commission of the crime by a subordinate where he had the ability to do so cannot simply be remedied by subsequently punishing the subordinate for the crime: ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Orić IT-03 -68, judgment, 30 June 2006, at para 326
-
The two types of liability are separate: A superior's failure to prevent the commission of the crime by a subordinate where he had the ability to do so cannot simply be remedied by subsequently punishing the subordinate for the crime: ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Orić IT-03 -68, judgment, 30 June 2006, at para 326
-
-
-
-
129
-
-
58149390033
-
-
Prosecutor v. Blaškić, supra note 31, at para. 336.
-
Prosecutor v. Blaškić, supra note 31, at para. 336.
-
-
-
-
130
-
-
58149390031
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 27, at para. 395.
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 27, at para. 395.
-
-
-
-
131
-
-
0033267505
-
-
Ibid.; Bantekas, 'The Contemporary Law of Superior Responsibility', 93 AJIL (1999) 573, at 592.
-
Ibid.; Bantekas, 'The Contemporary Law of Superior Responsibility', 93 AJIL (1999) 573, at 592.
-
-
-
-
132
-
-
58149382513
-
-
Fenrick, 'Art. 29', in Triffterer (ed.), supra note 53, at para. 9.
-
Fenrick, 'Art. 29', in Triffterer (ed.), supra note 53, at para. 9.
-
-
-
-
133
-
-
34547914172
-
-
An analogous application to civilians is impermissible: Nerlich, Superior Responsibility under Article 28 ICC Statute, 5 J Int'l Criminal Justice (2007) 665, at 671
-
An analogous application to civilians is impermissible: Nerlich, 'Superior Responsibility under Article 28 ICC Statute', 5 J Int'l Criminal Justice (2007) 665, at 671.
-
-
-
-
134
-
-
58149374482
-
-
For a different view see Bantekas, supra note 77, at 591
-
For a different view see Bantekas, supra note 77, at 591.
-
-
-
-
136
-
-
58149401114
-
-
Fenrick, supra note 78, at para. 9.
-
Fenrick, supra note 78, at para. 9.
-
-
-
-
137
-
-
58149374481
-
Prosecutor v. Orić, supra note 75, at para
-
ICC Statute
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Orić, supra note 75, at para. 331; Art. 28 ICC Statute.
-
331; Art
, vol.28
-
-
Trial Chamber, I.C.T.Y.1
-
138
-
-
58149396756
-
-
Art. 28 ICC Statute reads:, i]n addition to other grounds of criminal responsibility under this Statute for crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court: 1. A military commander or person effectively acting as a military commander shall be criminally responsible for crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court committed by forces under his or her effective command and control, or effective authority and control as the case may be, as a result of his or her failure to exercise control properly over such forces, where: A) that military commander or person either knew or, owing to the circumstances at the time, should have known that the forces were committing or about to commit such crimes; and b that military commander or person failed to take all necessary and reasonable measures within his or her power to prevent or repress their commission or to submit the matter to the competent authorities for investigation and prosecution. 2. With respect to superior and subordinate relationships
-
Art. 28 ICC Statute reads: '[i]n addition to other grounds of criminal responsibility under this Statute for crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court: 1. A military commander or person effectively acting as a military commander shall be criminally responsible for crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court committed by forces under his or her effective command and control, or effective authority and control as the case may be, as a result of his or her failure to exercise control properly over such forces, where: A) that military commander or person either knew or, owing to the circumstances at the time, should have known that the forces were committing or about to commit such crimes; and b) that military commander or person failed to take all necessary and reasonable measures within his or her power to prevent or repress their commission or to submit the matter to the competent authorities for investigation and prosecution. 2. With respect to superior and subordinate relationships not described in paragraph a), a superior shall be criminally responsible for crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court committed by subordinates under his or her effective authority and control, as a result of his or her failure to exercise control properly over such subordinates, where: A) the superior either knew, or consciously disregarded information which clearly indicated, that the subordinates were committing or about to commit such crimes; b) the crimes concerned activities that were within the effective responsibility and control of the superior; and c) the superior failed to take all necessary and reasonable measures within his or her power to prevent or repress their commission or to submit the matter to the competent authorities for investigation and prosecution'.
-
-
-
-
139
-
-
33748100672
-
Command Responsibility of Non-Military Superiors in the International Criminal Court (ICC)', 25
-
at
-
Vetter, 'Command Responsibility of Non-Military Superiors in the International Criminal Court (ICC)', 25 Yale J Int'l L (2000) 89, at 123.
-
(2000)
Yale J Int'l L
, vol.89
, pp. 123
-
-
Vetter1
-
140
-
-
58149394960
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 27, at para. 387.
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 27, at para. 387.
-
-
-
-
141
-
-
58149388132
-
-
Art. 28 (1)a
-
Art. 28 (1)(a).
-
-
-
-
142
-
-
58149399249
-
-
Fenrick, 'Article 28', in Triffterer (ed.), supra note 53, at 521
-
Fenrick, 'Article 28', in Triffterer (ed.), supra note 53, at 521
-
-
-
-
143
-
-
58149394962
-
-
Nybondas, supra note 69, at 79
-
Nybondas, supra note 69, at 79.
-
-
-
-
144
-
-
58149388131
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v Delalić, supra note 27
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v Delalić, supra note 27
-
-
-
-
145
-
-
58149399248
-
-
Art. 7(3) ICTY Statute, Art. 86(2) AP I. See, however, Cryer et al., supra note 53, at 324, 325.
-
Art. 7(3) ICTY Statute, Art. 86(2) AP I. See, however, Cryer et al., supra note 53, at 324, 325.
-
-
-
-
146
-
-
58149384356
-
-
ICTR Trial Chamber, Kayishema & Ruzindana, supra note 10, at para. 227, referred to Art. 28 ICC Statute in arguing for a separate knowledge standard for civilian superiors.
-
ICTR Trial Chamber, Kayishema & Ruzindana, supra note 10, at para. 227, referred to Art. 28 ICC Statute in arguing for a separate knowledge standard for civilian superiors.
-
-
-
-
147
-
-
58149398532
-
-
In Musema, supra note 14, at paras 147, 148 the ICTR Trial Chamber abandoned that distinction.
-
In Musema, supra note 14, at paras 147, 148 the ICTR Trial Chamber abandoned that distinction.
-
-
-
-
148
-
-
58149399246
-
-
ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 58, at para. 240, leaves this question explicitly open.
-
ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 58, at para. 240, leaves this question explicitly open.
-
-
-
-
149
-
-
58149399245
-
-
But subsequent cases assume the requirement is the same, e.g., ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kordic et al., supra note 58, at para 430: 'no distinction should be made between the knowledge required in relation to military and civilian superiors'.
-
But subsequent cases assume the requirement is the same, e.g., ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kordic et al., supra note 58, at para 430: 'no distinction should be made between the knowledge required in relation to military and civilian superiors'.
-
-
-
-
150
-
-
58149398529
-
-
See also ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Krnojelac, IT-97-25, judgment, 15 Mar. 2002, at para. 94
-
See also ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Krnojelac, IT-97-25, judgment, 15 Mar. 2002, at para. 94
-
-
-
-
151
-
-
58149380644
-
-
Prosecutor v. Brdjanin, IT-99-36, judgment, 1 Sept. 2004, at para. 282
-
Prosecutor v. Brdjanin, IT-99-36, judgment, 1 Sept. 2004, at para. 282
-
-
-
-
152
-
-
58149396769
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Orić, supra note 75, at para. 320.
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Orić, supra note 75, at para. 320.
-
-
-
-
153
-
-
58149386297
-
-
UN Doc. A/CONF.183/C.1/SR.1, at paras 67-83.
-
UN Doc. A/CONF.183/C.1/SR.1, at paras 67-83.
-
-
-
-
154
-
-
58149390027
-
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kordic et al., supra note 58, at para. 428.
-
ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kordic et al., supra note 58, at para. 428.
-
-
-
-
155
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58149393072
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Art. 1 ICC Statute
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Art. 1 ICC Statute.
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158
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58149374473
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For the applicability of universal jurisdiction for war crimes in non-international armed conflict see Kreß, supra note 17, at 169
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For the applicability of universal jurisdiction for war crimes in non-international armed conflict see Kreß, supra note 17, at 169.
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159
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58149394955
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Arts 49, 50 GC I; Arts 50, 51 GC II; Arts 129, 130 GC III; Arts 146, 147 GC IV; Art. 85(1) AP I. This obligation, according to the Customary International Humanitarian Law Study, also exists under customary law: Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, supra note 17, at 607
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Arts 49, 50 GC I; Arts 50, 51 GC II; Arts 129, 130 GC III; Arts 146, 147 GC IV; Art. 85(1) AP I. This obligation, according to the Customary International Humanitarian Law Study, also exists under customary law: Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, supra note 17, at 607.
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160
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58149378237
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ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v Blaškić, supra note 66, at para. 29.
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ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v Blaškić, supra note 66, at para. 29.
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161
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58149386296
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Arts 85, 11, 86, 88 AP I.
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Arts 85, 11, 86, 88 AP I.
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162
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58149388130
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Art. 147 GC IV
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Art. 147 GC IV.
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163
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58149386293
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See Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, supra note 17, ii, at 3894
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See Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, supra note 17, ii, at 3894.
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164
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79951905933
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Private Contractors Outnumber US Troops in Iraq
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4 July
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Miller, 'Private Contractors Outnumber US Troops in Iraq', Los Angeles Times, 4 July 2007.
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(2007)
Los Angeles Times
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Miller1
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165
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58149402291
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CPA, Order No. 17 (revised): Status of the Coalition Provisional Authority, MNF - Iraq, Certain Missions and Personnel in Iraq, 27 June 2004; CPA, Order No. 100: Transition of Laws, Regulations, Orders, and Directives Issued by the Coalition Provisional Authority, 28 June 2004, sect. 3(8). The US and Afghanistan have reportedly concluded a similar agreement. Following the killing of 17 civilians by PMC employees, the Iraqi parliament announced it would rescind the Order. At the time of writing, it appears that the issue is being discussed between Iraq and the US in the context of the new Status of Forces Agreement.
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CPA, Order No. 17 (revised): Status of the Coalition Provisional Authority, MNF - Iraq, Certain Missions and Personnel in Iraq, 27 June 2004; CPA, Order No. 100: Transition of Laws, Regulations, Orders, and Directives Issued by the Coalition Provisional Authority, 28 June 2004, sect. 3(8). The US and Afghanistan have reportedly concluded a similar agreement. Following the killing of 17 civilians by PMC employees, the Iraqi parliament announced it would rescind the Order. At the time of writing, it appears that the issue is being discussed between Iraq and the US in the context of the new Status of Forces Agreement.
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166
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58149374475
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CPA Order No. 17 (revised), sect. 5.
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CPA Order No. 17 (revised), sect. 5.
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167
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58149390028
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Sect. 47
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Sect. 4(7).
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169
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58149401109
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Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ), 64 Stat. 109, 10 USC ch. 47.
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Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ), 64 Stat. 109, 10 USC ch. 47.
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170
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58149384346
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According to Art. 2 the UCMJ now applies to 'persons serving with or accompanying an armed force in the field' 'in time of declared war or a contingency operation'. On the constitutional problems see Quigley, 'Civilian Contractor Charged with Assault under Military Law', American Forces Press Service, 6 Apr. 2008.
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According to Art. 2 the UCMJ now applies to 'persons serving with or accompanying an armed force in the field' 'in time of declared war or a contingency operation'. On the constitutional problems see Quigley, 'Civilian Contractor Charged with Assault under Military Law', American Forces Press Service, 6 Apr. 2008.
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171
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58149390024
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US State Department, On-the-Record Briefing With Acting Assistant Secretary of State for Diplomatic Security Gregory B. Starr, 4 Apr. 2008.
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US State Department, On-the-Record Briefing With Acting Assistant Secretary of State for Diplomatic Security Gregory B. Starr, 4 Apr. 2008.
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172
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58149380641
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Blackwater to Guard FBI Team Probing it
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3 Oct
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Meek, 'Blackwater to Guard FBI Team Probing it', New York Daily News 3 Oct. 2007.
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(2007)
New York Daily News
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Meek1
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173
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58149380637
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An example is the German Code of Crimes against International Law Völkerstrafgesetzbuch, VStGB, §§ 4, 13, 14, reprinted in Werle, supra note 20, at 428
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An example is the German Code of Crimes against International Law (Völkerstrafgesetzbuch, VStGB), §§ 4, 13, 14, reprinted in Werle, supra note 20, at 428.
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174
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58149376381
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Art. 1 ICC Statute
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Art. 1 ICC Statute.
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175
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58149393071
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Art. 25(1) ICC Statute. For the discussions in Rome see UN Doc. A/ CONF.183/C.1/SR.1, at paras 32-66; UN Doc. A/CONF.183/C.1/SR.23, at para. 3; A. Clapham, Human Rights Obligations of Non-State Actors (2006), at 246.
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Art. 25(1) ICC Statute. For the discussions in Rome see UN Doc. A/ CONF.183/C.1/SR.1, at paras 32-66; UN Doc. A/CONF.183/C.1/SR.23, at para. 3; A. Clapham, Human Rights Obligations of Non-State Actors (2006), at 246.
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177
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84919769012
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Domesticating International Corporate Responsibility: Holding Private Military Firms Accountable under the Alien Torts Claims Act', 11
-
at
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Garmon, 'Domesticating International Corporate Responsibility: Holding Private Military Firms Accountable under the Alien Torts Claims Act', 11 Tulane J Int'l & Comp L (2003) 325, at 351.
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(2003)
Tulane J Int'l & Comp L
, vol.325
, pp. 351
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Garmon1
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178
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58149398527
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Estate of Himoud Saed Abtan, et al. v. Blackwater Lodge and Training Center, Inc., et al., Case No. 1:07-cv-01831 (RBW)
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Estate of Himoud Saed Abtan, et al. v. Blackwater Lodge and Training Center, Inc., et al., Case No. 1:07-cv-01831 (RBW)
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179
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58149376371
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US District Court for the District of Columbia, Ibrahim et al. v. Titan Corp., Saleh et al. v. Titan Corp. and CACI, Civil Action No. 05-1165 (JR).
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US District Court for the District of Columbia, Ibrahim et al. v. Titan Corp., Saleh et al. v. Titan Corp. and CACI, Civil Action No. 05-1165 (JR).
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180
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58149384352
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-
See B.V.A. Roehling and C.F. Rueter eds, i, at XVI
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See Roehling, in B.V.A. Roehling and C.F. Rueter (eds), The Tokyo Judgement, The International Criminal Tribunal for the Far East, 29 April - 12 November 1948 (1977), i, at XVI.
-
(1977)
The Tokyo Judgement, The International Criminal Tribunal for the Far East, 29 April - 12 November 1948
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-
Roehling1
|