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Volumn 19, Issue 5, 2008, Pages 1015-1034

Individual liability of private military personnel under international criminal law

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EID: 58149387543     PISSN: 09385428     EISSN: 14643596     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/ejil/chn058     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (36)

References (180)
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    • Johnston and Broder, 'F.B.I. Says Guards Killed 14 Iraqis Without Cause',
    • 7 Nov
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    • See generally Human Rights First, 'Private Security Contractors at War. Ending the Culture of Impunity' (2008), at 6.
    • See generally Human Rights First, 'Private Security Contractors at War. Ending the Culture of Impunity' (2008), at 6.
  • 8
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    • US Pair's Role in Bombing Shown
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    • An Army of One's Own
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  • 10
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    • Government for Hire: Privatizing Foreign Affairs and the Problem of Accountability under International Law', 47
    • at
    • Dickinson, 'Government for Hire: Privatizing Foreign Affairs and the Problem of Accountability under International Law', 47 Williarn and Mary L Rev (2005) 137, at 153.
    • (2005) Williarn and Mary L Rev , vol.137 , pp. 153
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  • 11
    • 58149399287 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Private Security and Military Companies under the International Law of Armed Conflict
    • T. Jäger and G. Kümmel eds, at
    • Schaller, 'Private Security and Military Companies under the International Law of Armed Conflict', in T. Jäger and G. Kümmel (eds), Private Military and Security Companies. Chances, Problems, Pitfalls and Prospects (2006), at 345
    • (2006) Private Military and Security Companies. Chances, Problems, Pitfalls and Prospects , pp. 345
    • Schaller1
  • 13
    • 58149378253 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Despite some academic opinion to the contrary, the fact that PMC personnel might end up taking part in the hostilities is not a precondition for combatant status, but a consequence thereof (for a different view see, e.g., Boldt, 'Outsourcing War - Private Military Companies and International Humanitarian Law', 47 German Ybk Int'l L (2004) 502, at 512). In any case, where the hiring state has designated PMC personnel as civilians accompanying the armed forces (Art. 4(4) of Geneva Convention (GC) III) or it is otherwise clear that they are not authorized to take part in the hostilities, there is no room for any deviating interpretation of their status. Moreover, only PMC personnel hired by states can be combatants. PMCs hired by NGOs or companies can only qualify as civilians.
    • Despite some academic opinion to the contrary, the fact that PMC personnel might end up taking part in the hostilities is not a precondition for combatant status, but a consequence thereof (for a different view see, e.g., Boldt, 'Outsourcing War - Private Military Companies and International Humanitarian Law', 47 German Ybk Int'l L (2004) 502, at 512). In any case, where the hiring state has designated PMC personnel as civilians accompanying the armed forces (Art. 4(4) of Geneva Convention (GC) III) or it is otherwise clear that they are not authorized to take part in the hostilities, there is no room for any deviating interpretation of their status. Moreover, only PMC personnel hired by states can be combatants. PMCs hired by NGOs or companies can only qualify as civilians.
  • 14
    • 58149390070 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Akayesu, ICTR-9 6-4, judgment, 2 Sept. 1998, at para. 631
    • ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Akayesu, ICTR-9 6-4, judgment, 2 Sept. 1998, at para. 631
  • 15
    • 58149398566 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kayishema and Ruzindana, ICTR-95-1, judgment and sentence, 21 May 1999, at paras 174-176.
    • ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kayishema and Ruzindana, ICTR-95-1, judgment and sentence, 21 May 1999, at paras 174-176.
  • 16
    • 58149390073 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Contribution of Positive Obligations to State Responsibility for PMSCs, with Special Emphasis on the Duty to Prevent Human Rights Violations
    • On the question of attribution of PMC conduct see, this issue
    • On the question of attribution of PMC conduct see Hoppe, 'The Contribution of Positive Obligations to State Responsibility for PMSCs, with Special Emphasis on the Duty to Prevent Human Rights Violations', this issue
    • Hoppe1
  • 17
    • 58149393112 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Lehnardt, Private Military Companies and State Responsibility, in Chesterman and Lehnardt, supra note 9, at 143
    • Lehnardt, 'Private Military Companies and State Responsibility', in Chesterman and Lehnardt, supra note 9, at 143
  • 19
    • 58149384381 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This question is generally discussed in the context of the so-called nexus requirement: See in particular ICTR Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Akayesu, IT 9 6-4, judgment, 1 June 2001, at para. 444
    • This question is generally discussed in the context of the so-called nexus requirement: See in particular ICTR Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Akayesu, IT 9 6-4, judgment, 1 June 2001, at para. 444,
  • 20
    • 58149390074 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and infra section B.
    • and infra section B.
  • 21
    • 58149399289 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See ibid., at para. 443.
    • See ibid., at para. 443.
  • 22
    • 58149378279 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Musema, ICTR-96-13, judgment, 27 Jan. 2000, at para. 270.
    • ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Musema, ICTR-96-13, judgment, 27 Jan. 2000, at para. 270.
  • 23
    • 58149388162 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid., at para. 270.
    • Ibid., at para. 270.
  • 24
    • 58149374512 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • International Military Tribunal, United States v. Krauch and 22 others (I.G. Farben Case), 10 L Reps of Trials of War Criminals (LRTWC) (1947) 1
    • International Military Tribunal, United States v. Krauch and 22 others (I.G. Farben Case), 10 L Reps of Trials of War Criminals (LRTWC) (1947) 1
  • 25
    • 58149386331 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • United States v
    • International Military Tribunal Nuremberg
    • International Military Tribunal Nuremberg, United States v. Flick, judgment, 9 LRTWC 1
    • Flick, judgment, 9 LRTWC , vol.1
  • 26
    • 58149384373 scopus 로고
    • General Tribunal ofthe Military Government ofthe French Zone of Occupation in Germany, XIV Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals Under Control Council Law
    • General Tribunal ofthe Military Government ofthe French Zone of Occupation in Germany, France v. Roechling et al., XIV Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals Under Control Council Law No 10 (1952) 109
    • (1952) France v. Roechling et al , Issue.10 , pp. 109
  • 27
    • 58149396797 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • British Military Court Hamburg, United Kingdom v. Tesch and other (Zyklon B Case), 1946, 1 LRTWC 93
    • British Military Court Hamburg, United Kingdom v. Tesch and other (Zyklon B Case), 1946, 1 LRTWC 93
  • 28
    • 58149388149 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • British Military Court Essen, United Kingdom v. Heyer and others (Essen Lynching Case), judgment, 22 Dec. 1945, 1 LRTWC (1947) 88
    • British Military Court Essen, United Kingdom v. Heyer and others (Essen Lynching Case), judgment, 22 Dec. 1945, 1 LRTWC (1947) 88
  • 29
    • 58149382531 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • US Military Commission Wiesbaden, US v. Klein and six others (Hadamar Case), judgment, 15 Oct. 1945, 1 LRTWC (1947) 46.
    • US Military Commission Wiesbaden, US v. Klein and six others (Hadamar Case), judgment, 15 Oct. 1945, 1 LRTWC (1947) 46.
  • 31
    • 58149376408 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In favour of the position that all IHL norms bind all individuals regardless of any links to a party to the conflict are E. David, Principes de droit des conflits armes 3rd edn, 2002, at paras 1.195, 4.65
    • In favour of the position that all IHL norms bind all individuals regardless of any links to a party to the conflict are E. David, Principes de droit des conflits armes (3rd edn, 2002), at paras 1.195, 4.65
  • 32
    • 52649138977 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Individual Criminal Responsibility for Violations of Article 3 Common to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and of Additional Protocol II Thereto in the Case Law ofthe International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda', 13
    • at
    • Boed, 'Individual Criminal Responsibility for Violations of Article 3 Common to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and of Additional Protocol II Thereto in the Case Law ofthe International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda', 13 Criminal Law Forum (2002) 293, at 316-317
    • (2002) Criminal Law Forum , vol.293 , pp. 316-317
    • Boed1
  • 33
    • 58149384383 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Provost, supra note 16, at 98
    • Provost, supra note 16, at 98
  • 35
    • 58149380670 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See also UK Ministry of Defence, The Manual of the Law of Armed Conflict (2005), at para. 16.26.1
    • See also UK Ministry of Defence, The Manual of the Law of Armed Conflict (2005), at para. 16.26.1
  • 36
    • 58149380671 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • J.-M. Henckaerts and L. Doswald-Beck eds, at
    • J.-M. Henckaerts and L. Doswald-Beck (eds), Customary International Humanitarian Law (2005), at 573
    • (2005) Customary International Humanitarian Law , pp. 573
  • 37
    • 58149399278 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • War Crimes Committed in Non-International Conflict and the Emerging System ofInternational Criminal Justice', 30
    • It is, of course, possible for domestic criminal law to consider any act committedby civilians a war crime which, as a matter of international law, would not be seen as such, at
    • Kreß, 'War Crimes Committed in Non-International Conflict and the Emerging System ofInternational Criminal Justice', 30 Israel Ybk on Hurnan Rights (2001) 103, at 123. It is, of course, possible for domestic criminal law to consider any act committedby civilians a war crime which, as a matter of international law, would not be seen as such.
    • (2001) Israel Ybk on Hurnan Rights , vol.103 , pp. 123
    • Kreß1
  • 38
    • 58149380668 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., IT-96-23, judgment, 22 Feb. 2001, at para. 407.
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., IT-96-23, judgment, 22 Feb. 2001, at para. 407.
  • 39
    • 58149399277 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See the similar wording of Art. 4A(2) of GC III, which requires for the purposes of combatant status that the individual 'belongs to a Party to the conflict'. The ICTY Appeals Chamber found that this criterion required control over the individual by a party to the conflict: ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, IT-94-1, judgment, 15 July 199 9, at para. 95.
    • See the similar wording of Art. 4A(2) of GC III, which requires for the purposes of combatant status that the individual 'belongs to a Party to the conflict'. The ICTY Appeals Chamber found that this criterion required control over the individual by a party to the conflict: ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, IT-94-1, judgment, 15 July 199 9, at para. 95.
  • 40
    • 58149393097 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Given the purpose of the provision the better view is that it merely necessitates a factual link: J. de Preux, Commentary: III Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War (19 60), at 53. However, since Art. 4 of GC III grants rights to individuals, it is doubtful whether it can be relied on as an argument supporting the imposition of obligations.
    • Given the purpose of the provision the better view is that it merely necessitates a factual link: J. de Preux, Commentary: III Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War (19 60), at 53. However, since Art. 4 of GC III grants rights to individuals, it is doubtful whether it can be relied on as an argument supporting the imposition of obligations.
  • 41
    • 58149396791 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Further support for this position can be found in the wording of Art. 8 of the ICC statute, which arguably does not limit the scope ofperpetrators, although the wording ('within the established framework of international law') could also be interpreted to refer to the question whether civilians are bound by IHL. See K. Dörmann, Elements of War Crimes under the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (2003), at 391.
    • Further support for this position can be found in the wording of Art. 8 of the ICC statute, which arguably does not limit the scope ofperpetrators, although the wording ('within the established framework of international law') could also be interpreted to refer to the question whether civilians are bound by IHL. See K. Dörmann, Elements of War Crimes under the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (2003), at 391.
  • 42
    • 58149388148 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • G. Werle, Principles of International Criminal Law (2005), at para. 850.
    • G. Werle, Principles of International Criminal Law (2005), at para. 850.
  • 43
    • 58149382526 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See also ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, IT-94-1, judgment, 7 May 1997, at para. 573.
    • See also ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, IT-94-1, judgment, 7 May 1997, at para. 573.
  • 44
    • 58149380669 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Humanitarian Law and the Direct Participation in Hostilities by Private Contractors or Civilian Employees', 5
    • See, at
    • See Schmitt, 'Humanitarian Law and the Direct Participation in Hostilities by Private Contractors or Civilian Employees', 5 Chicago J Int'l L (2004) 511, at 539.
    • (2004) Chicago J Int'l L , vol.511 , pp. 539
    • Schmitt1
  • 45
    • 58149378258 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v Gotovina, Čermak and Markač, IT-06-90-PT, witness testimony, 26 June 2003, at 23121, available at www.un.org/icty/transe54/030626IT.htm.
    • See ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v Gotovina, Čermak and Markač, IT-06-90-PT, witness testimony, 26 June 2003, at 23121, available at www.un.org/icty/transe54/030626IT.htm.
  • 47
    • 58149398475 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The C.I.A.'s Travel Agent
    • 30 Oct
    • Mayer, 'The C.I.A.'s Travel Agent', The New Yorker, 30 Oct. 2006
    • (2006) The New Yorker
    • Mayer1
  • 50
    • 58149390060 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, supra note 38
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, supra note 38.
  • 51
    • 58149374497 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Eser, Individual Criminal Responsibility, in Cassese, Gaeta, and Jones, supra note 4, at 767, 791
    • Eser, 'Individual Criminal Responsibility', in Cassese, Gaeta, and Jones, supra note 4, at 767, 791.
  • 52
    • 58149382525 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., IT-96-23 & IT-96-23/1A, judgment, 12 June 2002, at para. 58.
    • ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., IT-96-23 & IT-96-23/1A, judgment, 12 June 2002, at para. 58.
  • 53
    • 58149398533 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The determination of the existence of an armed conflict and its characterization can be an additional source of uncertainty. PMCs operate in both non-international and international armed conflicts. While the ICC Statute expressly recognizes that war crimes can be committed also during a non-international conflict (Art. 8(2)(e) and f, as a matter of customary international law the criminal nature of breaches of common Art. 3 of GCI IV and of Additional Protocol II is less established than in the context of international armed conflicts. Yet the ICTY Appeals Chamber in the Tadic case held that customary international law imposes criminal responsibility for 'serious violations of common Art. 3, as supplemented by other general principles and rules on the protection ofvictims ofinternal armed conflict, ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, IT-94-1, decision on the defence motion for interlocutory appeal on jurisdiction, 2 Oct. 1995, at paras 87-93
    • The determination of the existence of an armed conflict and its characterization can be an additional source of uncertainty. PMCs operate in both non-international and international armed conflicts. While the ICC Statute expressly recognizes that war crimes can be committed also during a non-international conflict (Art. 8(2)(e) and (f), as a matter of customary international law the criminal nature of breaches of common Art. 3 of GCI IV and of Additional Protocol II is less established than in the context of international armed conflicts. Yet the ICTY Appeals Chamber in the Tadic case held that customary international law imposes criminal responsibility for 'serious violations of common Art. 3, as supplemented by other general principles and rules on the protection ofvictims ofinternal armed conflict': ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, IT-94-1, decision on the defence motion for interlocutory appeal on jurisdiction, 2 Oct. 1995, at paras 87-93.
  • 55
    • 58149384370 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Aleksovski, IT-9 5-14/1, judgment, 25 June 1999, at para. 45.
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Aleksovski, IT-9 5-14/1, judgment, 25 June 1999, at para. 45.
  • 56
    • 58149386321 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., supra note 22, at para. 58
    • ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., supra note 22, at para. 58
  • 57
    • 58149401131 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Vasiljevic, IT-98-32, judgment, 29 Nov. 2002, at para. 25.
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Vasiljevic, IT-98-32, judgment, 29 Nov. 2002, at para. 25.
  • 58
    • 58149396794 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, supra note 18, at para. 70
    • ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, supra note 18, at para. 70
  • 59
    • 58149399280 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v Tadic, supra note 20, at para. 573.
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v Tadic, supra note 20, at para. 573.
  • 60
    • 58149393100 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., IT-96-21, judgment, 16 Nov. 1998, at para. 193.
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., IT-96-21, judgment, 16 Nov. 1998, at para. 193.
  • 62
    • 58149380665 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., supra note 18, at para. 568
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., supra note 18, at para. 568
  • 63
    • 58149384368 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • also ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, IT-94-1, supra note 20, at para. 573.
    • also ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, IT-94-1, supra note 20, at para. 573.
  • 64
    • 58149401130 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., supra note 22, at para. 59
    • ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., supra note 22, at para. 59
  • 65
    • 58149402325 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTR Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Rutaganda, ICTR-96-3, judgment, 26 May 2003, at para. 569.
    • ICTR Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Rutaganda, ICTR-96-3, judgment, 26 May 2003, at para. 569.
  • 66
    • 58149376404 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, supra note 20, at para. 573
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, supra note 20, at para. 573
  • 67
    • 58149394977 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Blaškić, IT-95-14, judgment, 3 Mar. 2000, at para. 70.
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Blaškić, IT-95-14, judgment, 3 Mar. 2000, at para. 70.
  • 68
    • 58149399272 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For a different view see ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Akayesu, supra note 10, at para. 640.
    • For a different view see ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Akayesu, supra note 10, at para. 640.
  • 70
    • 58149382514 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 5 ICTY Statute stipulates that crimes against humanity must be committed 'in armed conflict'. This nexus has been described by the Appeals Chamber as 'obsolescent', as there is 'no logical or legal basis for this requirement and it has been abandoned in subsequent State practice with respect to crimes against humanity': ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, decision on the defence motion for interlocutory appeal on jurisdiction (supra note 23), at para. 140.
    • Art. 5 ICTY Statute stipulates that crimes against humanity must be committed 'in armed conflict'. This nexus has been described by the Appeals Chamber as 'obsolescent', as there is 'no logical or legal basis for this requirement and it has been abandoned in subsequent State practice with respect to crimes against humanity': ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, decision on the defence motion for interlocutory appeal on jurisdiction (supra note 23), at para. 140.
  • 71
    • 58149374495 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Werle, supra note 20, at para. 667.
    • Werle, supra note 20, at para. 667.
  • 73
    • 58149386316 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 3 ICTR Statute, Art
    • See, ILC Draft Codes of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind
    • See Art. 3 ICTR Statute, Art. 7(1) ICC Statute, Art. 18 ILC Draft Codes of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind (1996).
    • (1996) 7(1) ICC Statute, Art , vol.18
    • Art1
  • 74
    • 58149393096 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., supra note 22, at para. 94.
    • ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., supra note 22, at para. 94.
  • 75
    • 58149399276 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, supra note 18, at para. 227.
    • ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, supra note 18, at para. 227.
  • 76
    • 58149382524 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid., at para. 196.
    • Ibid., at para. 196.
  • 77
    • 58149393094 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Stakic, IT-97-24, judgment, 31 July 2003, at para 436.
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Stakic, IT-97-24, judgment, 31 July 2003, at para 436.
  • 78
    • 58149388146 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See note 42, at, Art. 2 ()(b) ICC Statute
    • See Eser, supra note 42, at 796; Art. 2 5(3)(b) ICC Statute.
    • supra , vol.5 , Issue.3 , pp. 796
    • Eser1
  • 79
    • 4344658597 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Statute, Art. 7(1, ICTR Statute, Art. 6(1, Art 129(1) of GC III, Art. 146(1) of GC IV; Art. 25(3)(b) ICC Statute, at
    • A. Cassese, International Criminal Law (2003), at 194; ICTY Statute, Art. 7(1), ICTR Statute, Art. 6(1), Art 129(1) of GC III, Art. 146(1) of GC IV; Art. 25(3)(b) ICC Statute.
    • (2003) International Criminal Law , pp. 194
    • Cassese, A.1
  • 80
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    • Werle, supra note 20, at para. 357.
    • Werle, supra note 20, at para. 357.
  • 81
    • 58149401129 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Fay Report, supra note 2.
    • Fay Report, supra note 2.
  • 82
    • 58149402320 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Krstić, IT-98-33, judgment, 2 Aug. 2001, at para. 601
    • See ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Krstić, IT-98-33, judgment, 2 Aug. 2001, at para. 601
  • 83
    • 58149399270 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kvočka et al., IT-98-30/1, judgment of 2 Nov. 2001, at para. 243
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kvočka et al., IT-98-30/1, judgment of 2 Nov. 2001, at para. 243
  • 84
    • 58149399269 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Naletilić and Martinović, IT-98-34, judgment, 31 Mar. 2003, at para. 60
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Naletilić and Martinović, IT-98-34, judgment, 31 Mar. 2003, at para. 60
  • 85
    • 58149390054 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTR Appeals Chamber, ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Akayesu, supra note 10, at para. 482.
    • ICTR Appeals Chamber, ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Akayesu, supra note 10, at para. 482.
  • 86
    • 58149398547 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Appeal Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, supra note 18, at para. 229
    • ICTY Appeal Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, supra note 18, at para. 229
  • 87
    • 58149384367 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v Krnojelac, IT-97-25, judgment, 15 Mar. 2002, at para. 88; Art. 25(3)(c) ICC Statute.
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v Krnojelac, IT-97-25, judgment, 15 Mar. 2002, at para. 88; Art. 25(3)(c) ICC Statute.
  • 88
    • 58149393092 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, supra note 20, at para. 688.
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Tadic, supra note 20, at para. 688.
  • 89
    • 58149401127 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Ambos, 'Article 25', in O. Triffterer, Commentary on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court - Observer's Notes, Article by Article (1999), at 481
    • See Ambos, 'Article 25', in O. Triffterer, Commentary on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court - Observer's Notes, Article by Article (1999), at 481
  • 91
    • 58149390052 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Moreover, there is no such requirement in Art. 25(3)(c) of the ICC Statute.
    • Moreover, there is no such requirement in Art. 25(3)(c) of the ICC Statute.
  • 92
    • 58149386313 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTR Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Ntakirutimana, ICTR-96-10, judgment, 13 Dec. 2004, at para. 530; Art. 25(3) (c) ICC Statute.
    • ICTR Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Ntakirutimana, ICTR-96-10, judgment, 13 Dec. 2004, at para. 530; Art. 25(3) (c) ICC Statute.
  • 93
    • 58149398546 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid., at para. 532.
    • Ibid., at para. 532.
  • 94
    • 58149390051 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 25(3)c
    • Art. 25(3)(c).
  • 95
    • 58149384366 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • US Supreme Court, United States v. Yamashita, 4 LRTWC(1947) 1, at 15
    • US Supreme Court, United States v. Yamashita, 4 LRTWC(1947) 1, at 15
  • 96
    • 58149398545 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Hadžihasanović et al., IT-01-47, decision of 12 Nov. 2002, at para. 174.
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Hadžihasanović et al., IT-01-47, decision of 12 Nov. 2002, at para. 174.
  • 97
    • 58149393079 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Referring to Nuremberg and Tokyo case law, Art. 86(2) of Additional Protocol (AP)I, and Art. 12 Draft Code of Crimes against Peace and Security of Mankind (UN Doc. A/51/10), the ICTY held that the principle of superior responsibility is established as a matter of customary law in ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Blagojevic & Jokic, IT-02-60, judgment, 9 May 2007, at para. 281
    • Referring to Nuremberg and Tokyo case law, Art. 86(2) of Additional Protocol (AP)I, and Art. 12 Draft Code of Crimes against Peace and Security of Mankind (UN Doc. A/51/10), the ICTY held that the principle of superior responsibility is established as a matter of customary law in ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Blagojevic & Jokic, IT-02-60, judgment, 9 May 2007, at para. 281
  • 98
    • 58149399263 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić, IT-96-2 1, judgment, 20 Feb. 2001, at para. 195
    • ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić, IT-96-2 1, judgment, 20 Feb. 2001, at para. 195
  • 99
    • 58149398517 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kordic et al, IT-95-14/2, judgment, 26 Feb. 2001, at para. 441. Art. 86(1) AP I reads:, t]he fact that a breach of the Conventions or of this Protocol was committed by a subordinate does not absolve his superiors from penal or disciplinary responsibility, as the case may be, if they knew, or had information which should have enabled them to conclude in the circumstances at the time, that he was committing or was going to commit such a breach and if they did not take all feasible measures within their power to prevent or repress the breach, The question whether the principle applies also to non-international conflicts was discussed in the Hadžihasanović Case. Both the Trial Chamber and Appeals Chamber found that superiors in non-international conflicts could become responsible, albeit with arguments primarily pertaining to military commanders: ICTY Trial Chamber, IT-01-47, decision, 12 Nov. 2001, at paras 87-88
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kordic et al., IT-95-14/2, judgment, 26 Feb. 2001, at para. 441. Art. 86(1) AP I reads: '[t]he fact that a breach of the Conventions or of this Protocol was committed by a subordinate does not absolve his superiors from penal or disciplinary responsibility, as the case may be, if they knew, or had information which should have enabled them to conclude in the circumstances at the time, that he was committing or was going to commit such a breach and if they did not take all feasible measures within their power to prevent or repress the breach'. The question whether the principle applies also to non-international conflicts was discussed in the Hadžihasanović Case. Both the Trial Chamber and Appeals Chamber found that superiors in non-international conflicts could become responsible, albeit with arguments primarily pertaining to military commanders: ICTY Trial Chamber, IT-01-47, decision, 12 Nov. 2001, at paras 87-88.
  • 100
    • 58149396770 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The question also arises for military commanders who are supervising the theatre of operation in which PMCs operate. Art. 87(1) AP I addresses 'military commanders with respect to members of the armed forces under their command and other persons under their control, On the question of superior responsibility of the person organizing the contract see Doswald-Beck, supra note 9, at 136
    • The question also arises for military commanders who are supervising the theatre of operation in which PMCs operate. Art. 87(1) AP I addresses 'military commanders with respect to members of the armed forces under their command and other persons under their control'. On the question of superior responsibility of the person organizing the contract see Doswald-Beck, supra note 9, at 136.
  • 102
    • 58149399268 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid., at para. 355
    • Ibid., at para. 355
  • 103
    • 58149399265 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Aleksovski, supra note 24, at paras 75, 78.
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Aleksovski, supra note 24, at paras 75, 78.
  • 104
    • 58149396786 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 27, at paras 377-378.
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 27, at paras 377-378.
  • 105
    • 58149396780 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 58, at para. 266.
    • ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 58, at para. 266.
  • 106
    • 58149380658 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid., at para. 303.
    • Ibid., at para. 303.
  • 107
    • 58149401126 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Aleksovski, supra note 24, at para. 78.
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Aleksovski, supra note 24, at para. 78.
  • 108
    • 58149390047 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Art. 28 (2)(b) ICC Statute
    • See Art. 28 (2)(b) ICC Statute
  • 109
    • 58149399251 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTRY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Aleksovski, supra note 24, at para. 78
    • ICTRY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Aleksovski, supra note 24, at para. 78
  • 110
    • 58149386304 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 56, at para. 378
    • ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 56, at para. 378
  • 111
    • 58149399250 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Blaškić, IT-95-14, judgment, 29 July 2004, at para. 67
    • ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Blaškić, IT-95-14, judgment, 29 July 2004, at para. 67
  • 112
    • 58149374483 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Semanza, ICTR-97-20, judgment, 15 May 2003, at para. 402
    • ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Semanza, ICTR-97-20, judgment, 15 May 2003, at para. 402
  • 113
    • 58149401116 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Ntagerura et al., ICTR-99-46, judgment, 25 Feb. 2004, at para. 628.
    • ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Ntagerura et al., ICTR-99-46, judgment, 25 Feb. 2004, at para. 628.
  • 115
    • 58149388133 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 27, at paras 354, 378
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 27, at paras 354, 378
  • 116
    • 58149393080 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Semanza, supra note 66, at para. 402
    • ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Semanza, supra note 66, at para. 402
  • 117
    • 58149376386 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kordic at al., supra note 58, at paras 414-415.
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kordic at al., supra note 58, at paras 414-415.
  • 118
    • 58149382512 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Hadžihasanović, supra note 58, at para. 85
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Hadžihasanović, supra note 58, at para. 85
  • 119
    • 77955253166 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Civilian Responsibility in the Kordic Case', 50
    • at
    • Nybondas, 'Civilian Responsibility in the Kordic Case', 50 Netherlands Int'l L Rev (2003) 59, at 64
    • (2003) Netherlands Int'l L Rev , vol.59 , pp. 64
    • Nybondas1
  • 120
    • 36549054269 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Command Responsibility in the Case Law of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda', 13
    • at
    • Williamson, 'Command Responsibility in the Case Law of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda', 13 Criminal Law Forum (2002) 365, at 368.
    • (2002) Criminal Law Forum , vol.365 , pp. 368
    • Williamson1
  • 121
    • 58149394964 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Aleksovski, supra note 24, at paras 77, 78.
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Aleksovski, supra note 24, at paras 77, 78.
  • 122
    • 58149398537 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Musema, supra note 14, at para. 880.
    • ICTR Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Musema, supra note 14, at para. 880.
  • 123
    • 58149393073 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In a third case concerning the medical director of a hospital the ICTR found there was not sufficient evidence to establish effective control: ICTR Trial Chamber, Ntakirutimana & Ntakirutimana, IT-96-10 & IT-96-17, judgment, 21 Feb. 2003, at paras 434, 821
    • In a third case concerning the medical director of a hospital the ICTR found there was not sufficient evidence to establish effective control: ICTR Trial Chamber, Ntakirutimana & Ntakirutimana, IT-96-10 & IT-96-17, judgment, 21 Feb. 2003, at paras 434, 821.
  • 124
    • 58149398536 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, however, ICTR Trial Chamber, Nahimana et al., IT-99-52, judgment, 3 Dec. 2003, at para. 976.
    • See, however, ICTR Trial Chamber, Nahimana et al., IT-99-52, judgment, 3 Dec. 2003, at para. 976.
  • 125
    • 58149386303 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid., at paras 567, 970, and 972
    • Ibid., at paras 567, 970, and 972
  • 126
    • 58149380648 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić, supra note 27, at para. 377.
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić, supra note 27, at para. 377.
  • 127
    • 58149384360 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTR Appeals Chamber, Nahimana et al., IT-99-52, judgment, 28 Nov. 2007, at para. 785.
    • ICTR Appeals Chamber, Nahimana et al., IT-99-52, judgment, 28 Nov. 2007, at para. 785.
  • 128
    • 58149374476 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The two types of liability are separate: A superior's failure to prevent the commission of the crime by a subordinate where he had the ability to do so cannot simply be remedied by subsequently punishing the subordinate for the crime: ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Orić IT-03 -68, judgment, 30 June 2006, at para 326
    • The two types of liability are separate: A superior's failure to prevent the commission of the crime by a subordinate where he had the ability to do so cannot simply be remedied by subsequently punishing the subordinate for the crime: ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Orić IT-03 -68, judgment, 30 June 2006, at para 326
  • 129
    • 58149390033 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prosecutor v. Blaškić, supra note 31, at para. 336.
    • Prosecutor v. Blaškić, supra note 31, at para. 336.
  • 130
    • 58149390031 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 27, at para. 395.
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 27, at para. 395.
  • 131
    • 0033267505 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid.; Bantekas, 'The Contemporary Law of Superior Responsibility', 93 AJIL (1999) 573, at 592.
    • Ibid.; Bantekas, 'The Contemporary Law of Superior Responsibility', 93 AJIL (1999) 573, at 592.
  • 132
    • 58149382513 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Fenrick, 'Art. 29', in Triffterer (ed.), supra note 53, at para. 9.
    • Fenrick, 'Art. 29', in Triffterer (ed.), supra note 53, at para. 9.
  • 133
    • 34547914172 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • An analogous application to civilians is impermissible: Nerlich, Superior Responsibility under Article 28 ICC Statute, 5 J Int'l Criminal Justice (2007) 665, at 671
    • An analogous application to civilians is impermissible: Nerlich, 'Superior Responsibility under Article 28 ICC Statute', 5 J Int'l Criminal Justice (2007) 665, at 671.
  • 134
    • 58149374482 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For a different view see Bantekas, supra note 77, at 591
    • For a different view see Bantekas, supra note 77, at 591.
  • 136
    • 58149401114 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Fenrick, supra note 78, at para. 9.
    • Fenrick, supra note 78, at para. 9.
  • 137
    • 58149374481 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prosecutor v. Orić, supra note 75, at para
    • ICC Statute
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Orić, supra note 75, at para. 331; Art. 28 ICC Statute.
    • 331; Art , vol.28
    • Trial Chamber, I.C.T.Y.1
  • 138
    • 58149396756 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 28 ICC Statute reads:, i]n addition to other grounds of criminal responsibility under this Statute for crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court: 1. A military commander or person effectively acting as a military commander shall be criminally responsible for crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court committed by forces under his or her effective command and control, or effective authority and control as the case may be, as a result of his or her failure to exercise control properly over such forces, where: A) that military commander or person either knew or, owing to the circumstances at the time, should have known that the forces were committing or about to commit such crimes; and b that military commander or person failed to take all necessary and reasonable measures within his or her power to prevent or repress their commission or to submit the matter to the competent authorities for investigation and prosecution. 2. With respect to superior and subordinate relationships
    • Art. 28 ICC Statute reads: '[i]n addition to other grounds of criminal responsibility under this Statute for crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court: 1. A military commander or person effectively acting as a military commander shall be criminally responsible for crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court committed by forces under his or her effective command and control, or effective authority and control as the case may be, as a result of his or her failure to exercise control properly over such forces, where: A) that military commander or person either knew or, owing to the circumstances at the time, should have known that the forces were committing or about to commit such crimes; and b) that military commander or person failed to take all necessary and reasonable measures within his or her power to prevent or repress their commission or to submit the matter to the competent authorities for investigation and prosecution. 2. With respect to superior and subordinate relationships not described in paragraph a), a superior shall be criminally responsible for crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court committed by subordinates under his or her effective authority and control, as a result of his or her failure to exercise control properly over such subordinates, where: A) the superior either knew, or consciously disregarded information which clearly indicated, that the subordinates were committing or about to commit such crimes; b) the crimes concerned activities that were within the effective responsibility and control of the superior; and c) the superior failed to take all necessary and reasonable measures within his or her power to prevent or repress their commission or to submit the matter to the competent authorities for investigation and prosecution'.
  • 139
    • 33748100672 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Command Responsibility of Non-Military Superiors in the International Criminal Court (ICC)', 25
    • at
    • Vetter, 'Command Responsibility of Non-Military Superiors in the International Criminal Court (ICC)', 25 Yale J Int'l L (2000) 89, at 123.
    • (2000) Yale J Int'l L , vol.89 , pp. 123
    • Vetter1
  • 140
    • 58149394960 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 27, at para. 387.
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 27, at para. 387.
  • 141
    • 58149388132 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 28 (1)a
    • Art. 28 (1)(a).
  • 142
    • 58149399249 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Fenrick, 'Article 28', in Triffterer (ed.), supra note 53, at 521
    • Fenrick, 'Article 28', in Triffterer (ed.), supra note 53, at 521
  • 143
    • 58149394962 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Nybondas, supra note 69, at 79
    • Nybondas, supra note 69, at 79.
  • 144
    • 58149388131 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v Delalić, supra note 27
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v Delalić, supra note 27
  • 145
    • 58149399248 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 7(3) ICTY Statute, Art. 86(2) AP I. See, however, Cryer et al., supra note 53, at 324, 325.
    • Art. 7(3) ICTY Statute, Art. 86(2) AP I. See, however, Cryer et al., supra note 53, at 324, 325.
  • 146
    • 58149384356 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTR Trial Chamber, Kayishema & Ruzindana, supra note 10, at para. 227, referred to Art. 28 ICC Statute in arguing for a separate knowledge standard for civilian superiors.
    • ICTR Trial Chamber, Kayishema & Ruzindana, supra note 10, at para. 227, referred to Art. 28 ICC Statute in arguing for a separate knowledge standard for civilian superiors.
  • 147
    • 58149398532 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In Musema, supra note 14, at paras 147, 148 the ICTR Trial Chamber abandoned that distinction.
    • In Musema, supra note 14, at paras 147, 148 the ICTR Trial Chamber abandoned that distinction.
  • 148
    • 58149399246 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 58, at para. 240, leaves this question explicitly open.
    • ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., supra note 58, at para. 240, leaves this question explicitly open.
  • 149
    • 58149399245 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • But subsequent cases assume the requirement is the same, e.g., ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kordic et al., supra note 58, at para 430: 'no distinction should be made between the knowledge required in relation to military and civilian superiors'.
    • But subsequent cases assume the requirement is the same, e.g., ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kordic et al., supra note 58, at para 430: 'no distinction should be made between the knowledge required in relation to military and civilian superiors'.
  • 150
    • 58149398529 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See also ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Krnojelac, IT-97-25, judgment, 15 Mar. 2002, at para. 94
    • See also ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Krnojelac, IT-97-25, judgment, 15 Mar. 2002, at para. 94
  • 151
    • 58149380644 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prosecutor v. Brdjanin, IT-99-36, judgment, 1 Sept. 2004, at para. 282
    • Prosecutor v. Brdjanin, IT-99-36, judgment, 1 Sept. 2004, at para. 282
  • 152
    • 58149396769 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Orić, supra note 75, at para. 320.
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Orić, supra note 75, at para. 320.
  • 153
    • 58149386297 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • UN Doc. A/CONF.183/C.1/SR.1, at paras 67-83.
    • UN Doc. A/CONF.183/C.1/SR.1, at paras 67-83.
  • 154
    • 58149390027 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kordic et al., supra note 58, at para. 428.
    • ICTY Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Kordic et al., supra note 58, at para. 428.
  • 155
    • 58149393072 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 1 ICC Statute
    • Art. 1 ICC Statute.
  • 158
    • 58149374473 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For the applicability of universal jurisdiction for war crimes in non-international armed conflict see Kreß, supra note 17, at 169
    • For the applicability of universal jurisdiction for war crimes in non-international armed conflict see Kreß, supra note 17, at 169.
  • 159
    • 58149394955 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Arts 49, 50 GC I; Arts 50, 51 GC II; Arts 129, 130 GC III; Arts 146, 147 GC IV; Art. 85(1) AP I. This obligation, according to the Customary International Humanitarian Law Study, also exists under customary law: Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, supra note 17, at 607
    • Arts 49, 50 GC I; Arts 50, 51 GC II; Arts 129, 130 GC III; Arts 146, 147 GC IV; Art. 85(1) AP I. This obligation, according to the Customary International Humanitarian Law Study, also exists under customary law: Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, supra note 17, at 607.
  • 160
    • 58149378237 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v Blaškić, supra note 66, at para. 29.
    • ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v Blaškić, supra note 66, at para. 29.
  • 161
    • 58149386296 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Arts 85, 11, 86, 88 AP I.
    • Arts 85, 11, 86, 88 AP I.
  • 162
    • 58149388130 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 147 GC IV
    • Art. 147 GC IV.
  • 163
    • 58149386293 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, supra note 17, ii, at 3894
    • See Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, supra note 17, ii, at 3894.
  • 164
    • 79951905933 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Private Contractors Outnumber US Troops in Iraq
    • 4 July
    • Miller, 'Private Contractors Outnumber US Troops in Iraq', Los Angeles Times, 4 July 2007.
    • (2007) Los Angeles Times
    • Miller1
  • 165
    • 58149402291 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • CPA, Order No. 17 (revised): Status of the Coalition Provisional Authority, MNF - Iraq, Certain Missions and Personnel in Iraq, 27 June 2004; CPA, Order No. 100: Transition of Laws, Regulations, Orders, and Directives Issued by the Coalition Provisional Authority, 28 June 2004, sect. 3(8). The US and Afghanistan have reportedly concluded a similar agreement. Following the killing of 17 civilians by PMC employees, the Iraqi parliament announced it would rescind the Order. At the time of writing, it appears that the issue is being discussed between Iraq and the US in the context of the new Status of Forces Agreement.
    • CPA, Order No. 17 (revised): Status of the Coalition Provisional Authority, MNF - Iraq, Certain Missions and Personnel in Iraq, 27 June 2004; CPA, Order No. 100: Transition of Laws, Regulations, Orders, and Directives Issued by the Coalition Provisional Authority, 28 June 2004, sect. 3(8). The US and Afghanistan have reportedly concluded a similar agreement. Following the killing of 17 civilians by PMC employees, the Iraqi parliament announced it would rescind the Order. At the time of writing, it appears that the issue is being discussed between Iraq and the US in the context of the new Status of Forces Agreement.
  • 166
    • 58149374475 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • CPA Order No. 17 (revised), sect. 5.
    • CPA Order No. 17 (revised), sect. 5.
  • 167
    • 58149390028 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Sect. 47
    • Sect. 4(7).
  • 169
    • 58149401109 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ), 64 Stat. 109, 10 USC ch. 47.
    • Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ), 64 Stat. 109, 10 USC ch. 47.
  • 170
    • 58149384346 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • According to Art. 2 the UCMJ now applies to 'persons serving with or accompanying an armed force in the field' 'in time of declared war or a contingency operation'. On the constitutional problems see Quigley, 'Civilian Contractor Charged with Assault under Military Law', American Forces Press Service, 6 Apr. 2008.
    • According to Art. 2 the UCMJ now applies to 'persons serving with or accompanying an armed force in the field' 'in time of declared war or a contingency operation'. On the constitutional problems see Quigley, 'Civilian Contractor Charged with Assault under Military Law', American Forces Press Service, 6 Apr. 2008.
  • 171
    • 58149390024 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • US State Department, On-the-Record Briefing With Acting Assistant Secretary of State for Diplomatic Security Gregory B. Starr, 4 Apr. 2008.
    • US State Department, On-the-Record Briefing With Acting Assistant Secretary of State for Diplomatic Security Gregory B. Starr, 4 Apr. 2008.
  • 172
    • 58149380641 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Blackwater to Guard FBI Team Probing it
    • 3 Oct
    • Meek, 'Blackwater to Guard FBI Team Probing it', New York Daily News 3 Oct. 2007.
    • (2007) New York Daily News
    • Meek1
  • 173
    • 58149380637 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • An example is the German Code of Crimes against International Law Völkerstrafgesetzbuch, VStGB, §§ 4, 13, 14, reprinted in Werle, supra note 20, at 428
    • An example is the German Code of Crimes against International Law (Völkerstrafgesetzbuch, VStGB), §§ 4, 13, 14, reprinted in Werle, supra note 20, at 428.
  • 174
    • 58149376381 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 1 ICC Statute
    • Art. 1 ICC Statute.
  • 175
    • 58149393071 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 25(1) ICC Statute. For the discussions in Rome see UN Doc. A/ CONF.183/C.1/SR.1, at paras 32-66; UN Doc. A/CONF.183/C.1/SR.23, at para. 3; A. Clapham, Human Rights Obligations of Non-State Actors (2006), at 246.
    • Art. 25(1) ICC Statute. For the discussions in Rome see UN Doc. A/ CONF.183/C.1/SR.1, at paras 32-66; UN Doc. A/CONF.183/C.1/SR.23, at para. 3; A. Clapham, Human Rights Obligations of Non-State Actors (2006), at 246.
  • 177
    • 84919769012 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Domesticating International Corporate Responsibility: Holding Private Military Firms Accountable under the Alien Torts Claims Act', 11
    • at
    • Garmon, 'Domesticating International Corporate Responsibility: Holding Private Military Firms Accountable under the Alien Torts Claims Act', 11 Tulane J Int'l & Comp L (2003) 325, at 351.
    • (2003) Tulane J Int'l & Comp L , vol.325 , pp. 351
    • Garmon1
  • 178
    • 58149398527 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Estate of Himoud Saed Abtan, et al. v. Blackwater Lodge and Training Center, Inc., et al., Case No. 1:07-cv-01831 (RBW)
    • Estate of Himoud Saed Abtan, et al. v. Blackwater Lodge and Training Center, Inc., et al., Case No. 1:07-cv-01831 (RBW)
  • 179
    • 58149376371 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • US District Court for the District of Columbia, Ibrahim et al. v. Titan Corp., Saleh et al. v. Titan Corp. and CACI, Civil Action No. 05-1165 (JR).
    • US District Court for the District of Columbia, Ibrahim et al. v. Titan Corp., Saleh et al. v. Titan Corp. and CACI, Civil Action No. 05-1165 (JR).


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