Viral pathogenesis, modulation of immune receptor signaling and treatment

Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology

Volumn 640, Issue , 2008, Pages 325-349

  Sigalov, Alexander B ^a   Kim, Walter M ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTIVIRUS AGENT; CELL SURFACE RECEPTOR; GLUCOSE TRANSPORTER 1; IMMUNOMODULATING AGENT; MULTICHAIN IMMUNE RECOGNITION RECEPTOR; NATURAL KILLER CELL RECEPTOR; PROTEIN P30; T LYMPHOCYTE RECEPTOR; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VIRUS DNA; VIRUS FUSION PROTEIN; VIRUS RNA; IMMUNOGLOBULIN RECEPTOR;

ADENO ASSOCIATED VIRUS; ADENOVIRUS; ANTIVIRAL ACTIVITY; ANTIVIRAL THERAPY; ARENAVIRUS; ASTROVIRUS; BK VIRUS; BORNA DISEASE VIRUS; BUNYAVIRUS; CIRCOVIRIDAE; CORONAVIRUS; DNA VIRUS; DRUG TARGETING; EBOLA VIRUS; FILOVIRIDAE; FLAVIVIRUS; GENOME SIZE; HANTAVIRUS; HEPADNAVIRIDAE; HEPATITIS A VIRUS; HEPATITIS B VIRUS; HEPATITIS C VIRUS; HERPES VIRUS; HUMAN; HUMAN CYTOMEGALOVIRUS; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 1; HUMAN ROTAVIRUS; HUMAN T CELL LEUKEMIA VIRUS 1; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IMMUNOMODULATION; IMMUNOSURVEILLANCE; INFLUENZA VIRUS A; LASSA VIRUS; LYMPHOCYTIC CHORIOMENINGITIS VIRUS; NATURAL KILLER CELL; NONHUMAN; NOROVIRUS; ORTHOMYXOVIRUS; PAPOVAVIRUS; PARAINFLUENZA VIRUS; PARAINFLUENZA VIRUS 1; PARAMYXOVIRUS; PARVOVIRUS; PICORNAVIRUS; POXVIRUS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REOVIRUS; RETROVIRUS; REVIEW; RHABDOVIRUS; RNA VIRUS; RUBELLA VIRUS; SARS CORONAVIRUS; SEQUENCE ANALYSIS; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; TARGET CELL; TARGET ORGAN; TOGAVIRUS; VACCINIA VIRUS; VESICULAR STOMATITIS VIRUS; VIRION; VIRUS CAPSID; VIRUS CLASSIFICATION; VIRUS ENTRY; VIRUS ENVELOPE; VIRUS GENE; VIRUS INFECTION; VIRUS MORPHOLOGY; VIRUS PATHOGENESIS; VIRUS REPLICATION; VIRUS SURVIVAL; VIRUS TRANSMISSION; VIRUS VIRULENCE; AMINO ACID SEQUENCE; ANIMAL; CLASSIFICATION; IMMUNOLOGY; METABOLISM; MOLECULAR GENETICS; PATHOGENICITY; VIRUS;

HUMAN HERPESVIRUS 5; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS;

AMINO ACID SEQUENCE; ANIMALS; HUMANS; MOLECULAR SEQUENCE DATA; RECEPTORS, IMMUNOLOGIC; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; VIRUS DISEASES; VIRUS INTERNALIZATION; VIRUS REPLICATION; VIRUSES;

EID: 58149355455     PISSN: 00652598     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-09789-3_22     Document Type: Review

References (157)

1. Medzhitov R. Recognition of microorganisms and activation of the immune response. Nature 2007; 449:819-826.
2. Pichlmair A, Reis e Sousa C. Innate recognition of viruses. Immunity 2007; 27:370-383.33. Chang CH, Hammer J, Loh JE et al. The activation of major histocompatibility complex class I genes by interferon regulatory factor-1 (IRF-1). Immunogenetics 1992; 35:378-384.
3. Takeuchi O, Akira S. Recognition of viruses by innate immunity. Immunol Rev 2007; 220:214-224.
4. Schroder M, Bowie AG. An arms race: Innate antiviral responses and counteracting viral strategies. Biochcm Soc Trans 2007; 35:1512-1514.
5. Loo YM, Gale M Jr. Viral regulation and evasion of the host response. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2007; 316:295-313.
6. Keller BC, Johnson CL, Erickson AK et al. Innate immune evasion by hepatitis C virus and West Nile virus. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2007; 18:535-544.
7. Coscoy L. Immune evasion by Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus. Nat Rev Immunol 2007; 7:391-401.
8. Takaoka A, Yanai H. Interferon signalling network in innate defence. Cell Microbiol 2006; 8:907-922.
9. van Wamel WJ, Rooijakkcrs SH, Ruyken M et al. The innate immune modulators staphylococcal complement inhibitor and chemotaxis inhibitory protein of staphylococcus aureus are located on beta-hemolysin-converting bacteriophages. J Bacteriol 2006; 188:1310-1315.
10. Rajagopalan S, Long EO. Viral evasion of NK-cell activation. Trends Immunol 2005; 26:403-405.
11. Kosugi I, Kawasaki H, Arai Y et al. Innate immune responses to cytomegalovirus infection in the developing mouse brain and their evasion by virus-infected neurons. Am J Pathol 2002; 161:919-928.
12. Haller O, Weber E Pathogenic viruses: Smart manipulators of the interferon system. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2007; 316:315-334.
13. Saito T, Gale M Jr. Principles of intracellular viral recognition. Curr Opin Immunol 2007; 19:17-23.
14. Kurt-Jones EA, Popova L, Kwinn L et al. Pattern recognition receptors TLR4 and CD 14 mediate response to respiratory syncytial virus. Nat Immimol 2000; 1:398-401.
15. Pasare C, Medzhitov R. Toll-like receptors: Linking innate and adaptive immunity. Adv Exp Med Biol 2005; 560:11-18.
16. Jancway CA Jr. Approaching the asymptote? Evolution and revolution in immunology. Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol 1989; 54(Pt 1):1-13.
17. Doly J, Civas A, Navarro S et al. Type I interferons: Expression and signalization. Cell Mol Life Sci 1998; 54:1109-1121.
18. Kunzi MS, Pitha PM. Interferon targeted genes in host defense. Autoimmunity 2003; 36:457-461.
19. Le Page C, Genin P, Baines MG et al. Interferon activation and innate immunity. Rev Immunogenet 2000; 2:374-386.
20. Ozato K, Tailor P, Kubota T. The interferon regulatory factor family in host defense: Mechanism of action. J Biol Chem 2007; 282:20065-20069.
21. Galligan CL, Murooka TT, Rahbar R et al. Interferons and viruses: signaling for supremacy. Immunol Res 2006; 35:27-40.
22. Perry AK, Chen G, Zheng D et al. The host type I interferon response to viral and bacterial infections. Cell Res 2005; 15:407-422.
23. Bonjardim CA. Interferons (IFNs) are key cytokines in both innate and adaptive antiviral immune responses-and viruses counteract IFN action. Microbes Infect 2005; 7:569-578.
24. Cebulla CM, Miller DM, Sedmak DD. Viral inhibition of interferon signal transduction. Intervirology 1999; 42:325-330.
25. Garcia-Sastre A. Mechanisms of inhibition of the host interferon alpha/beta-mediated antiviral responses by viruses. Microbes Infect 2002; 4:647-655.
26. Goodbourn S, Didcock L, Randall RE. Interferons: Cell signalling, immune modulation, antiviral response and virus countermeasures. J Gen Virol 2000; 81:2341-2364.
27. Levy DE, Garcia-Sastre A. The virus battles: IFN induction of the antiviral state and mechanisms of viral evasion. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2001; 12:143-156.
28. Yang I, Kremen TJ, Giovannone AJ et al. Modulation of major histocompatibility complex Class I molecules and major histocompatibility complex-boimd immunogenic peptides induced by interferon-alpha and interferon-gamma treatment of human glioblastoma multiforme. J Neurosurg 2004; 100:310-319.
29. Agrawal S, Kishore MC. MHC class I gene expression and regulation. J Hematother Stem Cell Res 2000; 9:795-812.
30. Thomas HE, Parker JL, Schreiber RD et al. IFN-gamma action on pancreatic beta cells causes class I MHC upregulation but not diabetes. J Clin Invest 1998; 102:1249-1257.
31. Gruschwitz MS, Vieth G. Up-regulation of class II major histocompatibility complex and intercellular adhesion molecule 1 expression on scleroderma fibroblasts and endothelial cells by interferon-gamma and tumor necrosis factor alpha in the early disease stage. Arthritis Rheum 1997; 40:540-550.
32. Dhib-Jalbut SS, Xia Q, Drew PD et al. Differential up-regulation of HLA class I molecules on neuronalnd glial cell lines by virus infection correlates with differential induction of IFN-beta. J Immunol 1995; 155:2096-2108.
33. Beniers AJ, Peelen WP, Debruyne FM et aL HLA-class-I and -class-II expression on renal tirnior xenografts and the relation to sensitivity for alpha-IFN, gamma-IFN and TNF. Int J Cancer 1991; 48:709-716.
34. Giacomini P, Fisher PB, Duigou GJ et al. Regulation of class II MHC gene expression by interferons: insights into the mechanism of action of interferon (review). Anticancer Res 1988; 8:1153-1161.
35. Sigalov AB. Immune cell signaling: A novel mechanistic model reveals new therapeutic targets. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2006; 27:518-524.
36. LwofF A, Tournier P. The classification of viruses. Annu Rev Microbiol 1966; 20:45-74.
37. LwofF A, Home R, Tournier P. A system of viruses. Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol 1962; 27:51-55.
38. Baltimore D. Expression of animal virus genomes. Bacteriol Rev 1971; 35:235-241.
39. Sigalov AB. Interaction between HIV gp41 fusion peptide and T-cell receptor: Putting the puzzle pieces back together. FASEB J 2007; 21:1633-1634; author reply 1635.
40. Sigalov AB. Transmembrane interactions as immunotherapeutic targets: Lessons from viral pathogenesis. Adv Exp Med Biol 2007; 601:335-344.
41. Vlasak R, Luytjes W, Spaan W et al. Human and bovine coronaviruses recognize sialic acid-containing receptors similar to those of influenza C viruses. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988; 85:4526-4529.
42. Higa HH, Rogers GN, Paulson JC. Influenza virus hemagglutinins differentiate between receptor determinants bearing N-acetyl-, N-glycollyl- and N,0-diacetylneuraminic acids. Virology 1985; 144:279-282.
43. Weis W, Brown JH, Cusack S et al. Structure of the influenza virus haemagglutinin complexed with its receptor, sialic acid. Nature 1988; 333:426-431.
44. Gentsch JR, Pacitti AF. Differential interaction of reovirus type 3 with sialylated receptor components on animal cells. Virology 1987; 161:245-248.
45. Paul RW, Choi AH, Lee PW. The alpha-anomeric form of sialic acid is the minimal receptor determinant recognized by reovirus. Virology 1989; 172:382-385.
46. Paul RW, Lee PW. Glycophorin is the reovirus receptor on human erythrocytes. Virology 1987; 159:94-101.
47. Greve JM, Davis G, Meyer AM et al. The major human rhinovirus receptor is ICAM-1. Cell 1989;56:839-847.
48. Mendelsohn CL, Wimmer E, Racaniello VR. Cellular receptor for poliovirus: Molecular cloning, nucleotide sequence and expression of a new member of the immunoglobulin superfamily. Cell 1989; 56:855-865.
49. Staunton DE, Merluzzi VJ, Rothlein R et al. A cell adhesion molecule, ICAM-1, is the major surface receptor for rhinoviruses. Cell 1989; 56:849-853.
50. Tomassini JE, Graham D, DeWitt CM et al cDNA cloning reveals that the major group rhinovirus receptor on HeLa cells is intercellular adhesion molecule 1. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1989; 86:4907-4911.
51. Dalgleish AG, Beverley PC, Clapham PR et al. The CD4 (T4) antigen is an essential component of the receptor for the AIDS retrovirus. Nature 1984; 312:763-767.
52. Klatzmann D, Champagne E, Chamaret S et al. T-lymphocyte T4 molecule behaves as the receptor for human retrovirus LAV Nature 1984; 312:767-768.
53. Maddon PJ, Dalgleish AG, McDougal JS et al. The T4 gene encodes the AIDS virus receptor and is expressed in the immune system and the brain. Cell 1986; 47:333-348.
54. McDougal JS, Kennedy MS, Sligh JM et al. Binding of HTLV-III/LAV to T4+ T-cells by a complex the llOK viral protein and the T4 molecule. Science 1986; 231:382-385.
55. Sattentau QJ, Weiss RA. The CD4 antigen: Physiological ligand and HIV receptor. Cell 1988; 52:631-633.
56. White JM. Membrane fusion. Science 1992; 258:917-924.
57. White JM. Viral and cellular membrane fusion proteins. Annu Rev Physiol 1990; 52:675-697.
58. Daniels PS, Jeffries S, Yates P et al. The receptor-binding and membrane-fiision properties of influenza virus variants selected using anti-haemagglutinin monoclonal antibodies. EMBO J 1987; 6:1459-1465.
59. Hoekstra D, Kok JW. Entry mechanisms of enveloped viruses. Implications for fusion of intracellular membranes. Biosci Rep 1989; 9:273-305.
60. Lamb RA. Paramyxovirus fusion: A hypothesis for changes. Virology 1993; 197:1-11.
61. Marsh M, Helenius A. Virus entry into animal cells. Adv Virus Res 1989; 36:107-151.
62. Underwood PA, Skehel JJ, Wiley DC. Receptor-binding characteristics of monoclonal antibody-selected antigenic variants of influenza vims. J Virol 1987; 61:206-208.
63. Wiley DC, Skehel JJ. The structure and function of the hemagglutinin membrane glycoprotein of influenza virus. Annu Rev Biochem 1987; 56:365-394.
64. Tyler KLaF, Bernard N. Fundamental Virology. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven Publishers, 1996:161-206.
65. Center RJ, Leapman RD, Lebowitz J et al. Oligomeric structure of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope protein on the virion surface, J Virol 2002; 76:7863-7867.
66. Weiss CD, Levy JA, White JM. Oligomeric organization of gpl20 on infectious human immunodeficiency virus type 1 particles. J Virol 1990; 64:5674-5677.
67. Zhang CW, Chishti Y, Hussey RE et al. Expression, purification and characterization of recombinant HIV gpl40. The gp41 ectodomain of HIV or simian immunodeficiency virus is sufiicient to maintain the retroviral envelope glycoprotein as a trimer. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:39577-39585.
68. Alkhatib G, Combadiere C, Broder CC et aL CC CKR5: A RANTES, MlP-lalpha, MlP-lbeta receptor as a fusion cofactor for macrophage-tropic HIV-1. Science 1996; 272:1955-1958.
69. Choe H, Farzan M, Sun Y et al. The beta-chemokine receptors CCR3 and CCR5 facilitate infection by primary HIV-1 isolates. CeU 1996; 85:1135-1148.
70. Deng H, Liu R, Ellmeier W et al. Identification of a major coreceptor for primary isolates of HIV-1. Nature 1996; 381:661-666.
71. Doranz BJ, Rucker J, Yi Y et al. A dual-tropic primary HFV-l isolate that uses fusin and the beta-chemokine receptors CKR-5, CKR-3 and CKR-2b as fiision cofactors. Cell 1996; 85:1149-1158.
72. Feng Y, Broder CC, Kennedy PE et al. HIV-1 entry cofactor: Functional cDNA cloning of a seven-transmembrane, G protein-coupled receptor. Science 1996; 272:872-877.
73. Trkola A, Dragic T, Arthos J et al. CD4-dependent, antibody-sensitive interactions between HIV-1 and its coreceptor CCR-5. Nature 1996; 384:184-187.
74. Wu L, Gerard NP, Wyatt R et al. CD4-induced interaction of primary HIV-1 gpl20 glycoproteins with the chemokine receptor CCR-5. Nature 1996; 384:179-183.
75. Quintana FJ, Gerber D, Kent SC et al. HIV-1 fiision peptide targets the TCR and inhibits antigen-specific T-cell activation. J Clin Invest 2005; 115:2149-2158.
76. Call ME, Pyrdol J, Wiedmann M et al. The organizing principle in the formation of the T-cell receptor- CD3 complex. CeU 2002; 111:967-979.
77. Sigalov A. Multi-chain immune recognition receptors: Spatial organization and signal transduction. Semin Immunol 2005; 17:51-64.
78. Sigalov AB. Multichain immune recognition receptor signaling: Different players, same game? Trends Immunol 2004; 25:583-589.
79. Quintana FJ, Gerber D, Bloch I et al. A structurally altered D,L-amino acid TCRalpha transmembrane peptide interacts with the TCRalpha and inhibits T-cell activation in vitro and in an animal model. Biochemistry 2007; 46:2317-2325.
80. Preston BD, Poicsz BJ, Loeb LA. Fidelity of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase. Science 1988; 242:1168-1171.
81. DeMeritt IB, Milford LE, Yurochko AD. Activation of the NF-kappaB pathway in human cytomegalovirus- infected cells is necessary for efficient transactivation of the major immediate-early promoter. J Virol 2004; 78:4498-4507.
82. Mocarski E Jr, Hahn G, White KL et al. Myeloid cell recruitment and function in pathogenesis and latency. In: Reddehase M, ed. Cytomegaloviruses: Pathogenesis, Molecular Biology and Infection Control Norfolk: Caister Scientific Press, 2006:465-482.
83. Mocarski E, Shenk T, Pass RF. Cytomegaloviruses. In: Knipe D, Howley PM, eds. Fields Virology. Philadelphia: Lippincott WilUams and Wilkins, 2007; 2:2702-2772.
84. Browne EP, Shenk T. Human cytomegalovirus UL83-coded pp65 virion protein inhibits antiviral gene expression in infected cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003; 100:11439-11444.
85. Paulus C, Krauss S, Nevels M. A human cytomegalovirus antagonist of type I IFN-dependent signal transducer and activator of transcription signaling. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006; 103:3840-3845.
86. Wiertz E, Hill A, Tortorella D et al. Cytomegaloviruses use multiple mechanisms to elude the host immune response. Immunol Lett 1997; 57:213-216.
87. Arnon TI, Achdout H, Levi O et al. Inhibition of the NKp30 activating receptor by pp65 of human cytomegalovirus. Nat Immimol 2005; 6:515-523.
88. Jones KS, Fugo K, Petrow-Sadowski C et al. Human T-cell leukemia vims type 1 (HTLV-1) and HTLV-2 use different receptor complexes to enter T-cells. J Virol 2006; 80:8291-8302.
89. Manel N, Taylor N, Kinct S et al. HTLV envelopes and their receptor GLUTl, the ubiquitous glucose transporter: a new vision on HTLV infection? Front Biosci 2004; 9:3218-3241.
90. Manel N, Kim FJ, Kinet S et al. The ubiquitous glucose transporter GLUT-1 is a receptor for HTLV CeU 2003; 115:449-459.
91. Kraft S, Kinet JP. New developments in FcepsUonRI regulation, function and inhibition. Nat Rev Immunol 2007; 7:365-378.
92. Pinon JD, Kelly SM, Price NC et al. An antiviral peptide targets a coiled-coil domain of the human T-ceU leukemia virus envelope glycoprotein. J Virol 2003; 77:3281-3290.94. Andersen PS, Geisler C, Buus S et al. Role of the T-cell receptor ligand affinity in T-cell activation by bacterial superantigens. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:33452-33457.
93. Igakura T, Stinchcombe JC, Goon PK et al. Spread of HTLV-I between lymphocytes by virus-induced polarization of the cytoskeleton. Science 2003; 299:1713-1716.
94. Daenke S, Booth S. HTLV-1-induced cell fusion is limited at two distinct steps in the fusion pathway after receptor binding. J Cell Sci 2000; 113(Pt l):37-44.
95. Jones PL, Korte T, Blumenthal R. Conformational changes in cell surface HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins are triggered by cooperation between cell surface CD4 and coreceptors. J Biol Chem 1998; 273:404-409.
96. Wilson KA, Bar S, Maerz AL et al. The conserved glycine-rich segment linking the N-terminal fusion peptide to the coiled coil of human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 transmembrane glycoprotein gp21 is a determinant of membrane fusion function. J Virol 2005; 79:4533-4539.
97. Wilson KA, Maerz AL, Poumbourios P. Evidence that the transmembrane domain proximal region of the human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 fusion glycoprotein gp21 has distinct roles in the prefusion and fusion-activated states. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:49466-49475.
98. Cianciolo GJ, Copeland TD, Oroszlan S et al. Inhibition of lymphocyte proliferation by a synthetic peptide homologous to retroviral envelope proteins. Science 1985; 230:453-455.
99. Ruegg CL, Monell CR, Strand M. Inhibition of lymphoproUferation by a synthetic peptide with sequence identity to gp41 of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Virol 1989; 63:3257-3260.
100. Yaddanapudi K, Palacios G, Towner JS et al. Implication of a retrovirus-like glycoprotein peptide in the immunopathogenesis of Ebola and Marburg viruses. FASEB J 2006; 20:2519-2530.
101. Bukrinsky MI, Sharova N, McDonald TL et al. Association of integrase, matrix and reverse transcriptase antigens of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 with viral nucleic acids following acute infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1993; 90:6125-6129.
102. Farnet CM, Haseltine WA. Determination of viral proteins present in the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 preintegration complex. J Virol 1991; 65:1910-1915.
103. Miller MD, Farnet CM, Bushman FD. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 preintegration complexes: studies of organization and composition. J Virol 1997; 71:5382-5390.
104. Turlure F, Devroe E, Silver PA et al. Human ceil proteins and human immunodeficiency virus DNA integration. Front Biosci 2004; 9:3187-3208.
105. Mansky LM, Temin HM. Lower in vivo mutation rate of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 than that predicted from the fidelity of purified reverse transcriptase. J Virol 1995; 69:5087-5094.
106. Freed EaM, MA. HIVs and their replication. In: Knipe DaH, PM, eds. Fields Virology. 5 ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2007; 1:2107-2185.
107. Gibellini D, Vitone F, Schiavone P et al. HIV-1 tat protein and cell proliferation and survival: A brief review. New Microbiol 2005; 28:95-109.
108. Amarapal P, Tantivanich S, Balachandra K et al. The role of the Tat gene in the pathogenesis of HIV infection. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 2005; 36:352-361.
109. Seelamgari A, Maddukuri A, Berro R et al. Role of viral regulatory and accessory proteins in HIV-1 replication. Front Biosci 2004; 9:2388-2413.
110. Strebel K. Virus-host interactions: Role of HIV proteins Vif, Tat and Rev. AIDS 2003; 17(Suppl 4):S25-34.
111. Keppler OT, Tibroni N, Venzke S et al. Modulation of specific surface receptors and activation sensitization in primary resting CD4+ T-lymphocytes by the Nef protein of HIV-1, J Leukoc Biol 2006; 79:616-627.
112. Schrager JA, Marsh JW. HIV-1 Nef increases T-cell activation in a stimulus-dependent manner. Proc Nad Acad Sci USA 1999; 96:8167-8172.
113. Simmons A, Aluvihare V, McMichael A. Nef triggers a transcriptional program in T-cells imitating single-signal T-cell activation and inducing HIV virulence mediators. Immunity 2001; 14:763-777.
114. Baur AS, Sawai ET, Dazin P et al. HIV-1 Nef leads to inhibition or activation of T-cells depending on its intracellular localization. Immunity 1994; 1:373-384.
115. Djordjevic JT, Schibeci SD, Stewart GJ et al, HIV type 1 Nef increases the association of T-cell receptor (TCR)-signaling molecules with T-cell rafts and promotes activation-induced raft fusion. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2004; 20:547-555.
116. Ahmad N, Venkatesan S. Nef protein of HIV-1 is a transcriptional repressor of HIV-1 LTR, Science 1988; 241:1481-1485.
117. Garcia JV, Miller AD. Downregulation of cell surface CD4 by nef Res Virol 1992; 143:52-55.
118. Garcia JV, Miller AD. Serine phosphorylation-independent downregulation of cell-surface CD4 by nef Nature 1991; 350:508-511.
119. Schwartz O, Marechal V, Le Gall S et al. Endocytosis of major histocompatibility complex class I molecules is induced by the HIV-1 Nef protein, Nat Med 1996; 2:338-342.
120. Cohen GB, Gandhi RT, Davis DM et al. The selective downrcgulation of class I major histocompatibility complex proteins by HIV-l protects HIV-infected cells from NK cells. Immunity 1999; 10:661-671.
121. Le Gall S, Erdtmann L, Benichou S et al. Nef interacts with the mu subunit of clathrin adaptor complexes and reveals a cryptic sorting signal in MHC I molecules. Immunity 1998; 8:483-495.
122. Swigut T, Shohdy N, Skowronski J. Mechanism for down-regulation of CD28 by Nef EMBO J 2001; 20:1593-1604.
123. Munch J, Janardhan A, Stoke N et al. T-cell receptor: CD3 down-regulation is a selected in vivo function of simian immunodeficiency virus Nef but is not sufficient for effective viral replication in rhesus macaques. J Virol 2002; 76:12360-12364.
124. Munch J, Rajan D, Schindler M et al. Nef-mediated enhancement of virion infectivity and stimulation of viral replication are fundamental properties of primate lentiviruses. J Virol 2007; 81:13852-13864.
125. Schaefer TM, Bell I, Fallert BA et al. The T-cell receptor zeta chain contains two homologous domains with which simian immunodeficiency virus Nef interacts and mediates down-modulation. J Virol 2000; 74:3273-3283.
126. Swigut T, Greenberg M, Skowronski J. Cooperative interactions of simian immunodeficiency virus Nef, AP-2 and CD3-zeta mediate the selective induction of T-cell receptor-CD3 endocytosis. J Virol 2003; 77:8116-8126.
127. Bell I, Ashman C, Maughan J et al. Association of simian immunodeficiency virus Nef with the T-cell receptor (TCR) zeta chain leads to TCR down-modulation. J Gen Virol 1998; 79 (Pt ll):2717-2727.
128. Schindler M, Munch J, Kutsch O et al. Nef-mediated suppression of T-cell activation was lost in a lentiviral lineage that gave rise to HIV-l. Cell 2006; 125:1055-1067.
129. Williams M, Roeth JF, Kasper MR et al. Himian immunodeficiency virus type 1 Ncf domains required for disruption of major histocompatibility complex class I trafficking are also necessary for coprecipitation of Ncf with HLA-A2. J Virol 2005; 79:632-636.
130. Ye H, Choi HJ, Poe J et al. Oligomerization is required for HIV-l Nef-induced activation of the Src family protein-tyrosine kinase, Hck. Biochemistry 2004; 43:15775-15784.
131. Arold S, Hoh F, Domergue S et al. Characterization and molecular basis of the oligomeric structure of HIV-l nef protein. Protein Sci 2000; 9:1137-1148.
132. Liu LX, Heveker N, Fackler OT et al. Mutation of a conserved residue (D123) required for oUgomerization of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Nef protein abolishes interaction with human thioesterase and results in impairment of Nef biological functions. J Virol 2000; 74:5310-5319.
133. Kienzle N, Freund J, Kalbitzer HR et al. Oligomerization of the Nef protein from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1. Eur J Biochem 1993; 214:451-457.
134. Fenard D, Yonemoto W, de Noronha C et al. Nef is physically recruited into the immunological synapse and potentiates T-cell activation early after TCR engagement. J Immimol 2005; 175:6050-6057.
135. Fultz PN. Replication of an acutely lethal simian immunodeficiency virus activates and induces proliferation of lymphocytes. J Virol 1991; 65:4902-4909.
136. Dehghani H, Brown CR, Plishka R et al. The ITAM in Nef influences acute pathogenesis ofIDS-inducing simian immunodeficiency viruses SIVsm and SIVagm without altering kinetics or extent of viremia. J Virol 2002; 76:4379-4389.
137. Petit C, Buseyne F, Boccaccio C et al. Ncf is required for efficient HIV-l replication in cocultures of dendritic cells and lymphocytes. Virology 2001; 286:225-236.
138. Piguet V, Trono D. The Nef protein of primate lentiviruses. Rev Med Virol 1999; 9:111-120.
139. Albrecht B, Collins ND, Burniston MT et al. Human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 open reading frame I pl2(I) is required for efficient viral infectivity in primary lymphocytes. J Virol 2000; 74:9828-9835.
140. Albrecht B, D'Souza CD, Ding W et al. Activation of nuclear factor of activated T-cells by human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 accessory protein pl2(I). J Virol 2002; 76:3493-3501.
141. Bindhu M, Nair A, Lairmore MD. Role of accessory proteins of HTLV-1 in viral replication, T-cell activation and cellular gene expression. Front Biosci 2004; 9:2556-2576.
142. Hollsberg P, Ausubel LJ, Hafler DA. Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I-induced T-cell activation. Resistance to TGF-beta 1-induced suppression. J Immunol 1994; 153:566-573.
143. Mann DL, Martin P, Hamlin-Green G et al. Virus production and spontaneous cell proliferation in HTLV-I-infected lymphocytes. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 1994; 72:312-320.
144. Albrecht B, Lairmore MD. Critical role of human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 accessory proteins in viral replication and pathogenesis. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2002; 66:396-406.
145. Ding W, Albrecht B, Kelley RE et al. Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 pi2(1) expression increases cytoplasmic calcium to enhance the activation of nuclear factor of activated T-cells. J Virol 2002; 76:10374-10382.
146. Ding W, Kim SJ, Nair AM et al. Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 p l 2 I enhances interleukin-2 production during T-cell activation. J Virol 2003; 77:11027-11039.
147. Nicot C, Mulloy JC, Ferrari MG et al. HTLV-1 pl2(I) protein enhances STAT5 activation and decreases the interleukin-2 requirement for proliferation of primary human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Blood 2001; 98:823-829.
148. Johnson JM, Mulloy JC, Ciminale V et al. The MHC class I heavy chain is a common target of the small proteins encoded by the 3' end of HTLV type 1 and HTLV type 2. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2000; 16:1777-1781.
149. Collins ND, Newbound GC, Albrecht B et al. Selective ablation of human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 pl2I reduces viral infectivity in vivo. Blood 1998; 91:4701-4707.
150. Guyot DJ, Newbound GC, Lairmore MD. Signaling via the CD2 receptor enhances HTLV-1 replication in T-lymphocytes. Virology 1997; 234:123-129.
151. Von Bonin A, Ehrlich S, Fleischer B. The transmembrane region of CD2-associated signal-transducing proteins is crucial for the outcome of CD2-mediated T-cell activation. Immunology 1998; 93:376-382.
152. Wild MK, Verhagen AM, Meuer SC et al. The receptor function of CD2 in human CD2 transgenic mice is based on highly conserved associations with signal transduction molecules. Cell Immunol 1997; 180:168-175.
153. Kimata JT, Palker TJ, Ratner L. The mitogenic activity of human T-cell leukemia virus type I is T-cell associated and requires the CD2/LFA-3 activation pathway. J Virol 1993; 67:3134-3141.
154. Tsukahara T, Ratner L. Substitution of HIV Type 1 Nef with HTLV-1 pi2. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2004; 20:938-943.
155. Fukumoto R, Dundr M, Nicot C et al. Inhibition of T-cell receptor signal transduction and viral expression by the linker for activation of T-cells-interacting pl2(I) protein of human T-cell leukemia/lymphoma virus type 1. J Virol 2007; 81:9088-9099.
156. Huynh NT, Ffrench RA, Boadle RA et al. Transmembrane T-cell receptor peptides inhibit B- and natural killer-cell function. Immunology 2003; 108:458-464.
157. Gerber D, Quintana FJ, Bloch I et al. D-enantiomer peptide of the TCRalpha transmembrane domain inhibits T-cell activation in vitro and in vivo. FASEB J 2005; 19:1190-1192.