Whatever happened to the salvage convention 1989?

Journal of Maritime Law and Commerce

Volumn 39, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 463-504

  Davies, Martin D ^a  

^a TULANE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 58149352984     PISSN: 00222410     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (345)

1. International Convention on Salvage, Apr. 28,1989, S. TREATY DOC. No. 102-12,1953 U.N.T.S. 193 (hereafter Salvage Convention 1989).
2. The Senate gave advice and consent to ratification of the Salvage Convention 1989 on October 29th, 1991. Legislative Activities Report, S.Rep. 103-35,49-50 (1993). Although advice and consent by the Senate is a necessary stage in the process of treaty ratification, the United States only becomes party to a treaty once the President makes a proclamation ratifying the treaty. Staff of Senate Comm. on Foreign Rel., 95th Cong., 1st Sess., The Role of the Senate in Treaty Ratification 2-3 (Comm. Print 1977). The date of formal ratification of the Salvage Convention 1989 by the President is not easy to trace. On December 19th, 1991, the President signed legislation to amend 46 app. U.S.C. §§ 729, 731 (now 46 U.S.C. § 80107) to give effect to changes made by the Salvage Convention 1989, which suggests that formal ratification had taken place by that date. Coast Guard Authorization Act of 1991, Pub. L. No. 102-241, § 40. Although ratification was effective in 1991, a treaty does not become "the supreme law of the land" under U.S. CONST., art. VI, § 2 until it comes into force internationally. RESTATEMENT (THIRD) OF FOREIGN RELATIONS LAW § 312, Comment j (1987);
3. Louis Henkin, Foreign Affairs and the US. Constitution 204 (2d ed. 1996). The Salvage Convention came into force internationally on July 14th, 1996.
4. Whitney v. Robertson, 124 U.S. 190, 194, 8 S.Ct. 456, 458 (1888);
5. Medellin v. Texas, - U.S. -, 128 S.Ct. 1346,1356-57 (2008).
6. International Towing & Salvage, Inc. v. F/V Lindsey Jeanette, 1999 AMC 2465 (M.D. Fla. 1999).
7. See, e.g., Plaintiff's Reply to Defendants' Response to the Motion for Summary Judgment, Key Tow Inc. v. Fortenberry, No. 02-22508-civ-moreno/garber, 2003 WL 23815096 (2003).
8. For example, the West Key Number Digest entry for Salvage (No. 344), lists 22 separate decisions since July 14th, 1996. None makes any reference to the Salvage Convention 1989. The American Maritime Cases series of reports contains 114 cases under the topic heading Salvage since July 14th, 1996. Only 14 contain any reference to the Salvage Convention 1989. Of those 14 cases, two are Canadian, one is English, one is Australian, one American decision refers in passing to the fact that the Convention is part of the law of France, and four are arbitration awards. Arbitration awards about salvage more frequently refer to the Convention, principally because it is incorporated by reference into the most widely-used contracts for recreational boat salvage in the United States: see Section II(B) below. Of the remaining five cases in American Maritime Cases that mention the Salvage Convention 1989, one rejected the application of the Convention (see infra notes 227-229 and accompanying text), one referred to the fact that arts. 13 and 14 are incorporated into one of the standard form contracts for recreational boat salvage (see infra note 32 and accompanying text), one made passing reference to the Convention without applying it and one applied the Salvage Convention 1910 (see infra note 9). Only one of the cases actually applied the Convention: see supra note 4.
9. Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules of Law with Respect to Assistance and Salvage at Sea, Sep. 23, 1910, 37 Stat. 1658, T.S. 576 (hereafter Salvage Convention 1910).
10. Maritime Law Association of the United States, Spring Meeting, May 4, 2001,12617-18, MLA Doc. No. 758 (2001).
11. Smit Americas, Inc. v. M/V Mantinia, 33 F.Supp. 2d 109,2003 AMC 1096 (D.P.R. 2003). The court did refer to the existence of the Salvage Convention 1989, saying that it had "updated" the Salvage Convention 1910 (id., 33 F.Supp. 2d at 110 n.4, 2003 AMC at 1061 n.l) but it applied the 1910 Convention:
12. see id., 33 F.Supp. 2d at 115,2003 AMC at 1069. It must be acknowledged that on the point at issue, the two-year limitation period, there is no difference between the 1910 and 1989 Conventions.
13. Restatement (Third) of Foreign Relations Law § 115(2) (1987).
14. Countries in this position include Japan, Luxembourg, Malta, Singapore and Turkey: see U.S. Department of State, Treaties In Force 2007: Section 2, Multilateral Agreements (2008) (available at http://www.state.gov/documents/ organization/89668.pdf)(last visited 17 July 2008).
15. Salvage Convention 1910, supra note 7, art. 15.
16. Martin J. Norris, et al., 3A Benedict on Admiralty § 159 (7th rev. ed. 2007)(hereafter 3A Benedict). This paragraph of 3A Benedict has been cited many times by courts as authority for the distinction between pure and contract salvage. See, e.g., Smit Americas, Inc. v. M/V Mantinia, 259 F.Supp. 2d 118, 121,2003 AMC 1096,1098 (d.RR. 2003);
17. New Bedford Marine Rescue, Inc. v. Cape Jeweler's Inc., 240 F.Supp.2d 101, 105 n.l, 2003 AMC 488,489 n.l (d.Mass. 2003).
18. Salvage Convention 1989, supra note 1, art. 2.
19. Id., art. 6(1).
20. U.S. CONST., art. VI, cl. 2. There is a considerable body of authority to the like effect concerning the analogous provision in the Convention on the International Sale of Goods (CISG), which permits parties to exclude the application of the Convention expressly or by implication. United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, art. 6, Apr. 11,1980, S. TREATY DOC. No. 98-9,1489 U.N.T.S.
21. See B.P. Oil Intern., Ltd v. Empresa Estatal Petroleos de Ecuador, 332 F.3d 333,337 (5th Cir. 2003)(con-tractual choice of Ecuadorian law not effective to exclude CISG because CISG is part of Ecuadorian law);
22. Asante Technologies, Inc. v. PMC-Sierra, Inc., 164 F. Supp. 2d 1142, 1149-50 (N.D. Cal. 2001)(same re choice of British Columbia law);
23. Valero Marketing & Supply Co. v. Greeni Oy, 373 F. Supp. 2d 475,480 (D.N.J. 2005), rev'd on other grounds 242 Fed. Appx. 840 (3d Cir. 2007) ("[T]o exclude the CISG a party must not only provide that the law of a particular state will apply, it must also expressly state that the CISG will not apply");
24. American Mint, L.L.C. v. GOSoftware, Inc., No. Civ.A. L05-CV-650,2005 WL 2021248 at *3 (M.D.Pa. 2005)(contractual choice of Georgia law not sufficient to exclude operation of CISG);
25. Easom Automation Systems, Inc. v. Thyssenkrupp Fabco., Corp., No. 06-14553, 2007 WL 2875256 at *3 (E.D. Mich. 2007)(contractual choice of Canadian law not effective to exclude CISG because CISG is part of Canadian law);
26. Travelers Property Cas. Co. of America v. Saint-Gobain Technical Fabrics Canada Ltd, 474 F.Supp.2d 1075, 1081-82 (D.Minn. 2007) (contractual choice of Minnesota law not sufficient to exclude operation of CISG). Cf. American Biophysics Corp. v. Dubois Marine Specialties, 411 F. Supp. 2d 61,63-64 (D.R.I.2006).
27. Copies of LOF 2000 can be obtained from the Lloyd's of London website at http://www.lloyds.com/NR/rdonlyres/5B84549E-C44C-4A65-8AB8-1D1831667FE1/0/ AgencyLOF2000.pdf (last visited March 12th, 2008).
28. LOF 2000, supra n. 17, els. D (Effect of Other Remedies), J (Governing Law).
29. Id., cl. I (Arbitration and the LSSA Clauses).
30. Use of the LOF form is in general decline in the rest of the world, too. There were 255 LOF salvage cases arbitrated in London in 1980 but only 80 in 2006 and 107 in 2007. International Salvage Union, ISU Puts Forward Plan for a New Lloyd's Form, Salvage World, Sep. 2007 at 1; Lloyd's Worldwide, LOF Statistics, (available at http://www.lloyds.com/Lloyds-Worldwide/Lloyds- Agents/Salvage-Arbitration-Branch/LOF-facts-And-figures.htm).
31. See generally Edward V. Cattell, Jr., Recreational Vessel Salvage Arbitration: An Interim Report, 29 J. Mar. L. Com. 257 (1998).
32. Committee on Marine Salvage Issues, National Research Council, Reassessment of the Marine Salvage Posture of the United States, 13 (1994).
33. Cattell, supra note 21, at 257.
34. U.S.C. § 88(2), inserted by Pub. L. 100-448, § 30(a) (1988). The "Secretary" referred to in § 88(2) is the Secretary of the Department of Homeland Security. Upon a declaration of war, the Coast Guard operates as a service of the Navy if Congress or the President so directs; in peace time it is part of the Department of Homeland Security. 14 U.S.C. § 3.
35. Andrew Anderson, Salvage and Recreational Vessels: Modern Concepts and Misconceptions, 6 U.S.F. Mar. LJ. 203,204-5 (1993).
36. Id.
37. Id.; Cattell, supra note 21, at 257.
38. Brier v. Northstar Marine, Inc., 1993 AMC 1194 (D.N J. 1992);
39. Jones v. Sea Tow Services Freeport N.Y., Inc., 30 F.3d 360, 1994 AMC 2661 (2d Cir. 1994);
40. Reinholtz v. Retriever Marine Towing & Salvage, 1994 AMC 2981 (S.D. Ha. 1993).
41. Cattell, supra note 21, at 257.
42. Copies of MARSALV can be obtained from the Society of Maritime Arbitrators, Inc. website at http://www.smany.org/sma/salvform.html (last visited March 12th, 2008).
43. Copies of the BOAT/US Standard Form Yacht Salvage Contract can be obtained from the Boat Owners' Association of the United States website at http://www.boatus.com/salvage/contract.pdf (last visited March 12th, 2008).
44. MARSALV, supra note 30, cl. THIRD; BOAT/US Standard Form Yacht Salvage Contract, supra note 31, cl. 3. The BOAT/US form makes the third option "no cure no pay," as well.
45. MARSALV, supra note 30, els. THIRD, FOURTH and SIXTH; BOAT/US Standard Form Yacht Salvage Contract, supra note 31, els. 3(a), 5, 6. See also
46. Cattell, supra note 21, at 260-65.
47. Salvage Convention 1989, supra note 1, art. 2.
48. Id., art. 6(1);
49. see supra note 15.
50. Anderson, supra note 25, at 220-21;
51. Vickey L. Quinn, Comment, Hard Aground: A Primer on the Salvage of Recreational Vessels, 19 U.S.F. Mar. L.J. 321, 341 (2007).
52. Anderson, supra note 25, at 220-21; Quinn, supra note 36 at 341.
53. Societa Commerciale Italiana Di Navigazione v. Maru Nav. Co., 280 F. 334 (4th Cir. 1922);
54. The Inchmaree, [1899] P. 111.
55. In re Coastal Towing & Salvage, Inc. (d/b/a Sea Tow Fort Lauderdale) and M/V Sea Robin, S.M.A. No. 3632, June 29,2000 (Arb. A.J. Siciliano); In re Coastal Towing & Salvage, Inc. (d/b/a Sea Tow Fort Lauderdale) and M/Y Answer Too, S.M.A. No. 3776, March 25, 2003 (Arb. A J. Siciliano);
56. In re Coastal Towing & Salvage, Inc. (d/b/a Sea Tow Fort Lauderdale) and M/V Freedom, S.M.A. No. 3789, May 27, 2003 (Arb. Austin Dooley);
57. In re Coastal Towing & Salvage, Inc. (d/b/a Sea Tow Fort Lauderdale) and M/V Ovation, S.M.A. No. 3801, Sep. 12, 2003 (Arb. Charles Cushing), aff'd S.M.A. No. 3805, Oct. 3, 2003 (App. Arb. Manfred Arnold);
58. In re Triple Check, Inc. and M/Y My Way, S.M.A. No. 3851, June 25, 2004 (Arb. Robert Umbdenstock);
59. In re Coastal Towing & Salvage, Inc. (d/b/a Sea Tow Fort Lauderdale) and M/V Dunn Deal, S.M.A. No. 3913, Jan. 10th, 2006 (Arb. William Peters).
60. See, e.g., In re B.H.R.S., Inc. (d/b/a Sea Tow Miami) and M/V Big Daddy, S.M.A. No. 3773, Feb. 20, 2003 (Arb. William Peters)(rejecting challenge to agreement to arbitrate in MARSALV form signed after salvage);
61. Royal Ins. Co. of America v. B.H.R.S., L.L.C., 333 F. Supp. 2d 1293, 2004 AMC 1192 (S.D.Fla. 2004)(affirming award made in previous case);
62. In re Coastal Towing & Salvage, Inc. (d/b/a Sea Tow Fort Lauderdale) and M/V Ovation, S.M.A. No. 3801, Sep. 12,2003 (Arb. Charles Cushing)(rejecting challenge to agreement to arbitrate in MARSALV form signed after salvage), S.M.A. No. 3805, Oct. 3, 2003 (App. Arb. Manfred Amold)(affirrning award);
63. In re Triple Check, Inc. and M/Y My Way, S.M.A. No. 3851, June 25, 2004 (Arb. Robert Umbdenstock)(rejecting challenge to agreement to arbitrate in MARSALV form signed after salvage); Stevenson v. October Princess Holdings, L.L.C., No. 05-240PS, 2006 WL 1519160 (D.Me. 2006), aff'd 2006 WL 1720169 (D.Me. 2006)(compelling arbitration under BOAT/US form signed after salvage).
64. See, e.g., Triplecheck, Inc. v. Creole Yacht Charters Ltd, No. 05-21182-CIV, 2006 WL 3507971 (S.D.Fla. 2006)(waiver of right to arbitration under MARSALV form signed after salvage).
65. Prima Paint Corp. v. Flood & Conklin Mfg Co., 388 U.S. 395, 87 S.Ct. 1801 (1967).
66. Id., 388 U.S. 395, at 403-4, 87 S.Ct. at 1806.
67. Id. In Runnin'Easy 3, Inc. v. Offshore Marine Towing, Inc., 314 F. Supp. 2d 1246, 2004 AMC 1773 (S.D. Fla. 2004) the court applied Prima Paint to refer a challenge to a salvage agreement to arbitration. Although the vessel owner claimed that the salvage form, a BOAT/US form, was not signed until after the salvage had been completed successfully, the court held that to be a disputed question to be decided by the arbitrator, the salvor having provided ample evidence that the form had been signed before salvage services commenced. Because the court held that the challenge was to the entire contract, Prima Paint required that it be considered by the arbitrator. Runnin'Easy 3,
68. id., 314 F. Supp. 2d at 1251-2,2004 AMC at 1779.
69. Supra note 39.
70. See, e.g., In re Sea Tow Services Cape Cod Bay and Baer, S.M.A. No. 3405, Jan. 5, 1998 (Arb. Ronald T. Carroll);
71. In re Coastal Towing & Salvage, Inc. (d/b/a Sea Tow Fort Lauderdale) and Karney, S.M.A. No. 3866, Nov. 5, 2004 (Arb. Lawrence Jacobson).
72. The two main franchisors are Sea Tow (see http://www.seastore.com/index. asp)(last visited May 12th, 2008) and TowBoatU.S., which is associated with the Boat Owners' Association of the United States (see www.towboatus.com)(last visited May 12th, 2008).
73. See, e.g., In re Coastal Towing & Salvage, Inc. (d/b/a Sea Tow Fort Lauderdale) and M/Y Answer Too, S.M.A. No. 3776, March 25,2003 (Arb. A J. Siciliano);
74. In re Coastal Towing & Salvage, Inc. (d/b/a Sea Tow Fort Lauderdale) and M/V Island Time, S.M.A. No. 3783, May 6, 2003 (Arb. William Peters);
75. In re Coastal Towing & Salvage, Inc. (d/b/a Sea Tow Fort Lauderdale) and M/V Freedom, S.M.A. No. 3789, May 27, 2003 (Arb. Austin Dooley);
76. In re Coastal Towing & Salvage, Inc. (d/b/a Sea Tow Fort Lauderdale) and M/V Who Knew It, S.M.A. No. 3802, Sep. 23,2003 (Arb. John F. Ring, Jr.);
77. In re Sea Tow of Beaufort and M/V Reel Nauti, S.M.A. No. 3832, Feb. 12,2004 (Arb. Harry Hunter);
78. In re Triple Check, Inc. and M/Y My Way, SJvLA. No. 3851, June 25, 2004 (Arb. Robert Umbdenstock);
79. In re Islamorada Boat Club, L.L.C. (d/b/a Sea Tow Key Largo) and Kalert, S.M.A. No. 3969, July 12, 2007 (Arb. William Peters);
80. In re Stevenson (d/b/a Pen Bay Towing) and M/Y October Princess, S.M.A. No. 3982, Oct. 10, 2007 (Arbs. Ronald T. Carroll, Stephen H. Busch, David Farrell, Jr.).
81. Committee on Marine Salvage Issues, National Research Council, Reassessment of the Marine Salvage Posture of the United States, 13 (1994).
82. U.S.C. § 1321(a)(23),(j)(2).
83. U.S.C. § 1321(d)(2)(C). The NCP is mandated by 33 U.S.C. § 1321(d)(1). For details of the functions of the NFSCC and the Strike Teams, see the NSFCC page at the U.S. Coast Guard website: http://www.uscg.mil/hq/nsfweb/ nsfcc/nsfccindex.html (last visited March 3rd, 2008).
84. U.S.C. § 7361(a),(e).
85. See "Doc2 Salvage" on the "Sea Doc" website of the Office of the Director of Ocean Engineering, Supervisor of Salvage and Diving, U.S. Navy, at http://www.supsalv.org/00c2-home.asp?destPage=00c2&pageId=2.1 (last visited April 11th, 2008).
86. Id. The Federal On-Scene Coordinator is designated in the National Contingency Plan (NCP). 33 U.S.C. §§ 1321(a)(21), 1321(d)(2)(K). The Federal On-Scene Coordinator coordinates all containment, removal and disposal efforts and resources and is the point of contact between federal agencies and local responders. The U.S. Coast Guard has 46 Marine Safety Offices spread among the nine U.S. Coast Guard districts, each of which is headed by a Captain of the Port, who is designated as a Federal On-Scene Coordinator under the NCP.
87. U.S. v. Ex-U.S.S. Cabot/Dedalo, 297 F.3d 378, 386, 2002 AMC 1974, 1984 (5th Cir. 2002)("[T]he Coast Guard's duty to respond to a threatened oil spill is mandatory, not optional").
88. U.S.C. § 7363.
89. In re American Oil Co., 417 F.2d 164, 1969 AMC 1761 (5th Cir. 1969).
90. U.S.C. §§ 30901-18 (2007)(Suits in Admiralty Act)(formerly codified at 46 app. U.S.C. §§ 741-52);
91. U.S.C. §§ 31101-13 (2007)(Public Vessels Act)(formerly codified at 46 app. U.S.C. §§ 781-90);
92. U.S.C. §§ 1346,2680(a)(Federal Tort Claims Act). See, e.g., Thames Shipyard & Repair Co. v. U.S., 350 F.3d 247, 2004 AMC 112 (1st Cir. 2003);
93. Wilder v. U.S., 2000 AMC 2215 (D.S.C. 2000);
94. Hood v. U.S., 695 F.Supp. 237, 1988 AMC 2598 (E.D. La. 1988); Daley v. U.S., 499 F.Supp. 1005, 1983 AMC 128 (D.Mass. 1980);
95. McLaughlin v. U.S., 671 F.Supp. 72, 1988 AMC 517 (D.Me. 1987).
96. U.S.C. § 1321(j)(5)(D).
97. C.F.R. § 155.1050(k)(l)(i),(ii) (2007).
98. C.F.R. § 155.1050(k)(3) (2007).
99. Salvage and Marine Firefighting Requirements; Vessel Response Plans for Oil, 72 Fed. Reg. 6168, 6170 (Feb. 9,2007)(suspending 33 C.F.R. § 155.1050(k)(3) until Feb. 12,2009).
100. Id., at 6169.
101. An example of this procedure in operation can be seen in the salvage of the motor tanker White Sea and its cargo of 548,000 barrels of Low Sulfur Fuel Oil (LSFO) on July 12th-13th, 2007. ASA Member Responds to Grounded Tanker off Coney Island, 5 Soundings, Fall 2007, at 4-5 (available at http://www.americansalvage.org/Soundings/Fall2007-web.pdf (last visited April 18th, 2008)).
102. The professional salvor arrived at the stranded tanker "within hours of the casualty" and successfully removed the tanker's cargo once approval was obtained from the Coast Guard. Id.
103. See, e.g., In re Sea Tow Shinnecock Moriches and One Beacon America Insurance Co., S.M.A. No. 3991, Jan. 18th, 2008 (Arb. David W. Martowski)(arbitration of claim for salvage of commercial fishing vessel under MARSALV form).
104. See supra note 28.
105. See John A. Witte, Jr. Lloyd's Open Form: 100 Years in the Making, 113 Marine Log, March 2008, at 59-60 (LOF "will remain the contract of choice for the marine salvage community"). Mr. Witte is currently the President of the American Salvage Association.
106. See above nn 30,31.
107. U.S. (10 Wall.) 1,14,19 L.Ed. 870,2002 AMC 1808 (1869).
108. See, e.g., Offshore Marine Towing, Inc. v. MR23, 412 F.3d 1254,1257,2005 AMC 1800,1804 (11th Cir. 2005)(citing and applying the Blackwall factors);
109. R.M.S. Titanic, Inc. v. Wrecked and Abandoned Vessel, 286 F.3d 194, 203 n.*, 2002 AMC 1136, 1147 n.l (4th Cir. 2002)(citing Blackwall factors);
110. Southernmost Marine Services, Inc. v. One (1) 2000 Fifty Four Foot (54') Sea Ray named M/V Potential, 250 F. Supp. 2d 1367, 1377-78, (S.D.Fla. 2003)(citing and applying Blackwall factors);
111. New Bedford Marine Rescue, Inc. v. Cape Jeweler's Inc., 240 F. Supp. 2d 101, 115, 2003 AMC 488, 502 (D.Mass. 2003)(same);
112. Joseph v. J.P. Yachts, L.L.C., 436 F. Supp. 2d 254,271,2006 AMC 2786,2806-7 (D.Mass. 2006)(same);
113. Reiss v. One Schat-Harding Lifeboat No. 120776 No. 1,444 F.Supp. 2d 553,557,2006 AMC 1401, 1404 (D.S.C. 2006)(same);
114. Sea Tow Portland/Vancouver v. Yacht High Steaks, 2007 AMC 2705, 2711-13 (D.Or. 2007)(same);
115. Boat Raising and Reclamation v. Victory, a 56' Dania Custom Boat, No. 2:06-cv-78-FtM-29DNF, 2007 WL 4462995, **9-10 (M.D. Fla. 2007)(applying Blackwall factors without citation);
116. Miami Yacht Divers, Inc. v. M/V All Access, 2008 AMC 170, 173 (S.D.Fla. 2007)(citing and applying Blackwall factors);
117. Cape Ann Towing v. M/Y Universal Lady, No. 07-13237,2008 WL 647095, *1 n.l (11th Cir. 2008)(citing Blackwall factors).
118. Salvage Convention 1989, art. 13(1) provides, in pertinent part: "1. The reward shall be fixed with a view to encouraging salvage operations, taking into account the following criteria without regard to the order in which they are presented below:
119. (a) the salved value of the vessel and other property;
120. (b) the skill and efforts of the salvors in preventing or minimizing damage to the environment;
121. (c) the measure of success obtained by the salvor;
122. (d) the nature and degree of the danger;
123. (e) the skill and efforts of the salvors in salving the vessel, other property and life;
124. (f) the time used and expenses and losses incurred by the salvors;
125. (g) the risk of liability and other risks run by the salvors or their equipment;
126. (h) the promptness of the services rendered;
127. (i) the availability and use of vessels or other equipment intended for salvage operations;
128. (j) the state of readiness and efficiency of the salvor's equipment and the value thereof."
129. The Blackwall, 77 U.S. (10 Wall.) 1,12,19 L.Ed. 870, 2002 AMC 1808 (1869).
130. The Sabine, 101 U.S. (11 Otto) 384, 384, 25 L.Ed. 982 (1879).
131. Norris, 3A Benedict, supra note 13, § 81. See also The Lamington, 86 F. 675, 684 (2d Cir. 1898);
132. Bureau Wijsmuller v. United States, 702 F.2d 333, 340, 1983 AMC 1471, 1479 (2d Cir. 1983)("[A] professional salvor is entitled to a more liberal award than a chance salvor"). Until The Camanche, 75 U.S. (8 Wall.) 448, 19 L.Ed. 397, 2003 AMC 2979 (1869), the rule was that professional salvors could not claim salvage reward at all.
133. H.R.M., Inc. v. S/V Venture VII, 972 F.Supp. 92,96, 1998 AMC 9, 15 (D.R.I. 1997); New Bedford Marine Rescue, Inc. v. Cape Jeweler's Inc., 240 F. Supp. 2d 101, 115, 2003 AMC 488, 502 (D.Mass. 2003)("Professional salvors are granted more liberal awards because they possess unique skills and must maintain expensive equipment to continue rendering services to those in need");
134. Triplecheck, Inc. v. Creole Yacht Charters Ltd, No. 05-21182-CIV, 2006 WL 3507971 at *2 (S.D.Fla. 2006); Miami Yacht Divers, Inc. v. M/V All Access, 2008 AMC 170,175 (S.D.Fla. 2007)("A professional salvor is entitled to an increment in its salvage award to encourage the professional salvage profession"). Cf. Atlantis Marine Towing, Inc. v. M/V Elzabeth, 346 F. Supp. 2d 1266,1276 n.l (S.D. Fla. 2004)(rejecting salvor's request for an enhancement of reward based on its status as professional salvor);
135. Sea Tow Portland/Vancouver v. Yacht High Steaks, 2007 AMC 2705, 2713 (D.Or. 2007)(same).
136. Michael Kerr, The International Convention on Salvage 1989 - How It Came To Be, 39 Int'l & Comp. L.Q. 530, 542 (1990)("Article 13(l)(b) is a wholly novel provision").
137. F.Supp. 440,1993 AMC 1042 (E.D. La, 1992).
138. Id., 809 RSupp. at 442-43, 1993 AMC at 1046-47.
139. F.3d 976,1998 AMC 2383 (5th Cir. 1998).
140. Id., 143 F.3d at 988-89,1998 AMC at 2398.
141. The salvage occurred during the "dark and very stormy night" of November 14th-15th, 1994. Id., 143 F.3d at 980, 1998 AMC at 2384.
142. F. Supp. 2d 101,118, 2003 AMC 488, 506 (D.Mass. 2003).
143. Joseph v. J.P. Yachts, L.L.C., 436 F. Supp. 2d 254, 273, 2006 AMC 2786, 2809 (D.Mass. 2006).
144. F. Supp. 2d 1367 (S.D.Fla. 2003).
145. Id., at 1368.
146. Id.,at 1378.
147. Id.
148. Id.
149. If the court had applied the Salvage Convention 1989, art. 13 criteria, it would first have had to determine whether the 600 gallons of diesel fuel on board the vessel posed a threat of "substantial physical damage to human health or to marine life or resources in coastal or inland waters or areas adjacent thereto," which is the Convention's restrictive definition of "damage to the environment." Salvage Convention 1989, supra note 1, art. 1(d). If so, the salvor's success in averting that threat would have been relevant to the fixing of salvage reward under Salvage Convention 1989, art. 13(l)(b).
150. F.2d 333, 1983 AMC 1471 (2d Cir. 1983).
151. Id., 702 F.2d at 339;
152. 1983 AMC at 1478-79, citing Martin Norris, 3A Benedict on Admiralty § 237 (6th ed. 1980). See also Jones v. Sea Tow Services Freeport N.Y., Inc., 30 F.3d 360, 364, 1994 AMC 2661,2667 (2d Cir. 1994).
153. New Bedford Marine Rescue, Inc. v. Cape Jeweler's Inc., 240 F. Supp. 2d 101,115,2003 AMC 488, 502 (D.Mass. 2003)(applying Blackwall criteria in the Benedict/Bureau Wijsmuller ranked order of importance). Cf. Southernmost Marine Services, Inc. v. One (1) 2000 Fifty Four Foot (54') Sea Ray named M/V Potential, 250 F. Supp. 2d 1367, 1377-78, (S.D.Fla. 2003)(citing Blackwall factors in the order stated by the Blackwall court).
154. Norris, 3A Benedict, supra note 13, § 237.
155. Salvage Convention 1989, art. 14(1).
156. Id.
157. Kerr, supra note 76, at 533.
158. Id., at 534.
159. See, e.g., International Towing & Salvage, Inc. v. F/V Lindsey Jeanette, 1999 AMC 2465 (M.D. Fla. 1999)(special compensation payable under art. 14 because salvor's expenses exceeded salved value of vessel).
160. Salvage Convention 1989, art. 14(2). In International Towing & Salvage, id., the court awarded the maximum increment of 30% under art. 14(2).
161. Semco Salvage & Marine Pte Ltd v. Lancer Navigation Co. Ltd (The Nagasaki Spirit), [1997] App. Cas. 455 (H.L. on appeal from Eng.). Professional salvors took the view that reimbursement of their expenses under art. 14 on a Nagasaki Spirit basis that included no element of profit was insufficient to give them enough incentive to intervene in casualties posing a threat of environmental harm. As a result, the International Salvage Union and the International Group of P. & I. Clubs negotiated a clause, known as the Special Compensation Protection and Indemnity Club Clause, or SCOPIC Clause, which can be included in a salvage contract and which provides for payment of expenses according to an agreed tariff. The latest version of the SCOPIC Clause (SCOPIC 2007) can be found on the International Salvage Union website at http://www.marine-salvage.com/documents/SCOPICJuly2007.pdf (last visited March 3rd, 2008).
162. Salvage Convention 1989, art. 1(d).
163. Nicholas J. Gaskell, The 1989 Salvage Convention and the Lloyd's Open Form (LOF) Salvage Agreement 1990, 16 Tul. Mar. L.J. 1, 38-39 (1991).
164. U.S.C. § 1321(f)(l),(4).
165. U.S. v. Ex-U.S.S. Cabot/Dedalo, 297 F.3d 378,386, 2002 AMC 1974,1984 (5th Cir. 2002)("[T]he Coast Guard's duty to respond to a threatened oil spill is mandatory, not optional").
166. International Towing & Salvage, Inc. v. F/V Lindsey Jeanette, 1999 AMC 2465 (M.D. Fla. 1999).
167. Tine v. Rockwood, 895 F.Supp. 306, 310 (S.D. Ha, 1995); New Bedford Marine Rescue, Inc. v. Cape Jeweler's Inc., 240 F. Supp. 2d 101, 118, 2003 AMC 488, 506 (D.Mass. 2003)(applying general maritime law despite applicability of the Salvage Convention 1989).
168. Salvage Convention 1989, art. 14.1.
169. Gaskell, supra note 102, at 56-57 (no art. 14 special compensation for raising cargo posing a threat of pollution).
170. RSupp. 306, 1995 AMC 2048 (S.D. Fla, 1995)(boat with hole in the hull settled to the bottom while moored to the berth; decks remained above water; fuel oil had to be removed before tow to repair yard; no salvage).
171. International Salvage Union, Salvors to Press Case for Environmental Awards, Salvage World, Dec. 2007 at 1; International Salvage Union, ISU Puts Forward Plan for a New Lloyd's Form, Salvage World, Sep. 2007 at 1.
172. Norris, 3A Benedict, supra note 13, §§ 32, 34,43.
173. Id. See, e.g., Broere v. Two Thousand One Hundred Thirty-Three Dollars, 72 F.Supp. 115, 1947 AMC 1523 (E.D.N.Y. 1947)(salvage reward for retrieving money found in wallet of floating corpse).
174. Salvage Convention 1989, supra note 1, art. l(a)(salvage operation), art. l(c)(property). The exclusion of property permanently and intentionally attached to the shoreline mirrors the decision in Cope v. Vallette Dry Dock Co., 119 U.S. 625,7 S.Ct. 336 (1887)(floating drydock permanently moored to shore not property subject to salvage).
175. At the 1989 Diplomatic Conference, the Federal Republic of Germany proposed an amendment that would specifically have applied the Convention to sunken ships. Gaskell, supra note 102, at 35. In contrast, Argentina would have excluded wreck salvage altogether except when performed immediately after the sinking.
176. Id. at 35-36. Neither amendment was adopted, apparently on the assumption that floating vessels were salvable property under art. 1(b) and sunken vessels were salvable property under art.
177. 1(c). Id. at 36-37;
178. Kerr, supra note 76, at 548 n.28.
179. Id., art. 30(1)(d).
180. David Bederman, Historic Salvage and the Law of the Sea, 30 U. Miami Inter-Am. L. Rev. 99,110-11 (1998)[hereafter Bederman, Historic Salvage];
181. David Bederman, Maritime Preservation Law: Old Challenges, New Trends, 8 Widener L. Symp. J. 163, 171 (2002)[hereafter Bederman, Old Challenges, New Trends];
182. Craig Forrest, Has the Application of Salvage Law to Underwater Cultural Heritage Become a Thing of the Past?, 34 J. Mar. L. & Com. 309, 347 (2003).
183. fs33 Treasure Salvors, Inc. v. Unidentified Wrecked and Abandoned Sailing Vessel, 569 F.2d 330,1978 AMC 1404 (5th Or. 1978);
184. Cobb Coin Co., Inc. v. Unidentified, Wrecked and Abandoned Sailing vessel, 549 F.Supp. 540,1983 AMC 1018 (S.D. Fla. 1982).
185. The U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Florida declared R.M.S. Titanic, Inc. to be salvor-in-possession of the wreck of the Titanic on June 7th, 1994. R.M.S. Titanic, Inc. v. The Wrecked and Abandoned Vessel, 920 F. Supp. 96,97 n 1;
186. 1996 AMC 2986, 2987 n 1 (S.D. Fla. 1996). The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit recently confirmed the status of R.M.S. Titanic, Inc. as salvor by refusing to award the company title to artifacts raised from the wreck. R.M.S. Titanic, Inc. v. The Wrecked and Abandoned Vessel, 435 F.3d 521;
187. 2006 AMC 305 (4th Cir. 2006). The United States signed the international Agreement Concerning the Shipwrecked Vessel R.M.S. Titanic, negotiated by Canada, France, the U.K. and the United States, on 18 June 2004. Because this treaty is not self-executing, it cannot become effective for the United States without implementing legislation: see supra note 3. No such legislation has been passed by the U.S. Congress.
188. Hener v. U.S., 525 F.Supp. 350, 356, 1982 AMC 847, 856 (S.D.N.Y. 1981)("harsh, primitive and inflexible"); Martha's Vineyard Scuba Headquarters, Inc. v. Unidentified, Wrecked and Abandoned Steam Vessel, 833 F.2d 1059,1065,1988 AMC 1109, 1116 (1st Cir. 1987)("finders, keepers").
189. See, e.g., Martha's Vineyard Scuba, 833 F.2d at 1064-65,1988 AMC at 1116; R.M.S. Titanic, Inc. v. The Wrecked and Abandoned Vessel, 435 F.3d 521, 2006 AMC 305 (4th Cir. 2006)(holding that the law of finds did not apply to the sunken vessel Titanic);
190. Adams v. Unione Mediterranea di Sicurta, 220 F.3d 659, 2000 AMC 2788 (5th Cir. 2000)(whether salvage or finds applied to sunken cargo).
191. See, e.g., Marex Intern., Inc. v. Unidentified, Wrecked and Abandoned Vessel, 952 F.Supp. 825, 1998 AMC 484 (S.D.Ga. 1997).
192. JOHN REEDER, BRICE ON MARITIME LAW OF SALVAGE, para. 4-35, p. 277 (4th ed., 2003);
193. FRANCIS ROSE, KENNEDY AND ROSE THE LAW OF SALVAGE, para. 215, p. 106 (6th ed. 2002).
194. See supra note 113 and accompanying text.
195. Columbus-America Discovery Group v. Atlantic Mut. Ins. Co., 974 F.2d 450, 460, 1992 AMC 2705, 2714 (4th Cir. 1992).
196. Salvage Convention 1989, supra note 1, art. 13(2).
197. See also, id., art. 21(1) (duty of person liable for salvage reward to provide security on request).
198. In M.D.M. Salvage, Inc. v. Unidentified, Wrecked and Abandoned Sailing Vessel, 631 F.Supp. 308, 1987 AMC 537 (S.D.Fla. 1986), the court awarded the successful salvors the salved artifacts in specie, saying that in such a case the law of salvage and the law of finds "merge to give the first finder/salvor sole possession of the property."
199. Id., 631 F.Supp. at 311-12, 1987 AMC at 541-42.
200. See, e.g., Columbus-America Discovery Group v. Atlantic Mut. Ins. Co., 974 F.2d 450,468, 1992 AMC 2705, 2728 (4th Cir. 1992).
201. See also Bederman, Old Challenges, New Trends, supra note 116, at 168.
202. See infra, notes 194-195 and accompanying text.
203. U.S.C. § 2106(a).
204. The ASA provides that the term "submerged lands" means "lands beneath navigable waters" as defined in the Submerged Lands Act. 43 U.S.C. § 2102(f)(1). The Submerged Lands Act provides that "lands beneath navigable waters" extend three nautical miles from the coast line, except where the boundary of a State extended beyond three miles at the time that State became a member of the Union. 43 U.S.C. § 1301(a)(2). The submerged lands of Texas extend three marine leagues (about nine nautical miles) from the coast line, a legacy of the fact that Texas was a sovereign republic when it became a member of the
205. Union. U.S. v. Louisiana, 363 U.S. 1, 65, 80 S.Ct. 961,997 (1960); U.S. v. Texas, 339 U.S. 707,712-13, 70 S.Ct. 918,921 (1950). The submerged lands of Florida extend to three marine leagues (about nine nautical miles) on the Gulf Coast but three nautical miles on the Atlantic Coast, because the U.S. Congress approved the three-league Gulf Coast limit when admitting Florida to the Union. U.S. v. Louisiana, 363 U.S. 1,123-29,80 S.Ct. 961,1027-30 (1960);
206. U.S. v. Florida, 420 U.S. 531,95 S.Ct. 1162 (1975). Florida state courts have asserted that Florida's territorial waters (as opposed to the submerged lands) on the Atlantic side extend to the eastward edge of the Gulf Stream, which can exceed the territorial sea of the United States. See Benson v. Norwegian Cruise Line, Ltd., 859 So.2d 1213 (Fla. App. 3 Dist., 2003), aff'd without opinion 885 So.2d 388 (2004)(Table). The submerged lands of Puerto
207. U.S.C. § 749(2). The submerged lands of Guam, the Virgin Islands and American Samoa extend three nautical miles. 43 U.S.C. § 2102(f)(3); 48 U.S.C. § 1705. Although the ASA provides that the term "submerged lands" includes the lands of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (43 U.S.C. § 2102(f)(4)), the Commonwealth has no submerged lands. In Northern Mariana Islands v. US., 399 F.3d 1057 (9th Cir. 2005), it was held that the Covenant to Establish a Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands in Political Union with the United States of America, § 801 (Pub. L. 94-241, § 801 (1976), reprinted in 48 U.S.C. § 1801) transferred all submerged lands to the United States, leaving the Commonwealth with no sovereignty over submerged lands. It would seem to follow that any historic shipwreck embedded in the sea-bed off the Northern Mariana Islands is not subject to the ASA.
208. U.S.C. § 2105(a).
209. U.S.C. § 2105(a),(c); Bederman, Old Challenges, New Trends, supra note 116, at 165-66. For these purposes, the term "State" means any state of the United States, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, Guam, the Virgin Islands, American Samoa and the Northern Mariana Islands. 43 U.S.C. § 2102(e).
210. See, e.g., Fairport Intern. Exploration, Inc. v. The Shipwrecked Vessel Known As The Captain Lawrence, 245 F.3d 857, 2001 AMC 1741 (6fh Cir. 2001).
211. The operation of the ASA depends on the scope of some difficult concepts, such as embeddedness, abandonment and eligibility for inclusion on the National Register. See Roberto Iraola, The Abandoned Shipwreck Act of 1987, 25 Whittier L. Rev. 787, 807-19 (2004);
212. J.P. Jones, The United States Supreme Court and Treasure Salvage: Issues Remaining After Brother Jonathan, 30 J. Mar. L. & Com. 205, 223 (1999). For example, in a recent case the state of Michigan insisted that the salvor disclose the location of an historic shipwreck so that a determination of embeddedness could be made for the purposes of the ASA. Great Lakes Exploration Group, L.L.C. v. Unidentified, Wrecked and (For Salvage-Right Purposes) Abandoned Sailing Vessel, 522 F.3d 682 (6th Cir. 2008). Despite the existence of decisions suggesting or holding the ASA to be constitutionally valid (see Zych v. Unidentified, Wrecked and Abandoned Vessel, 19 F.3d 1136,1994 AMC 2672 (7th Cir. 1994); Sunken Treasure, Inc. v. Unidentified, Wrecked and Abandoned Vessel, 857 F.Supp. 1129,1995 AMC 1515 (D.V.I. 1994)), distinguished commentators continue to express doubts about the constitutionality of the Act. See Jones, id., at 223-25;
213. Joseph Sweeney, An Overview of Commercial Salvage Principles in the Context of Marine Archeology, 30 J. Mar. L. & Com. 185, 223 (1999);
214. Bederman, Old Challenges, New Trends, supra note 116, at 165.
215. Salvage Convention 1989, supra note 1, art. 1(a).
216. Id., art. 17.
217. Gaskell, supra note 102, at 25.
218. Norris, 3ABenedict, supra note 13, § 68.
219. See, e.g., The Neptune, 1 Hagg. Adm. 227,236-37,166 E.R. 81,84-85 (1824)(crew); Towlev. The Great Eastern, 24 F.Cas. 75, 82 (S.D.N.Y. 1864)(No. 14,110)(passengers).
220. U.S. (10 Pet.) 108, 120-22, 9 L.Ed. 363 (1836).
221. Salvage Convention 1989, supra note 1, art. 5(3).
222. See supra notes 55,57-58 and accompanying text.
223. Norris, 3A Benedict, supra note 13, § 82.
224. The Sava Star, [1995] 2 Lloyd's Rep. 134, 142 (Q.B.(Adm.)).
225. F. Supp. 2d 370 (E.D.N.Y. 2008).
226. Id. at 373.
227. Id., at 381-82.
228. Id., at 382-83.
229. Id., at 384-85.
230. American Metal Co. v. M/V Belleville, 284 F.Supp. 1002, 1006, 1970 AMC 633, 639 (S.D.N.Y. 1968).
231. Sec also Industrie Chimiehe Italia Centrale & Cerealfin, S.A. v. Alexander G. Tsavliris & Sons Maritime Co. (The Choko Star), [1990] 1 Lloyd's Rep. 516, 525 (Eng. Ct. App.);
232. Tsavliris Salvage (International) Ltd v. Guangdong Shantou Overseas Chinese Materials Marketing Co. (The Pa Mar), [1999] 1 Lloyd's Rep. 338, 341-42.
233. American Metal Co., 284 F.Supp. at 1006, 1970 AMC at 639.
234. See also Restatement (Second) of Agency § 47 (1958). The Restatement (Third) of Agency (2006) does not use the expression "agency of necessity." Id., § 2.02, comment b.
235. American Metal Co., 284 F.Supp. at 1006, 1970 AMC at 639.
236. Industrie Chimiche Italia Centrale & Cerealfin, S.A. V.AlexanderG. Tsavliris & Sons Maritime Co. (The Choko Star), [1990] 1 Lloyd's Rep. 516 (Eng. Ct. App.).
237. Id.,at518.
238. Id.
239. Id., at 519.
240. Id., at 520.
241. Id., at 524-25, 527.
242. Houseman v. The Cargo of the Schooner North Carolina, 40 U.S. (15 Pet.) 40,10 L£d. 653 (1841).
243. Id., at 45.
244. See, e.g., American Metal Co. v. M/V Belleville, 284 F.Supp. 1002, 1006, 1970 AMC 633, 639 (S.D.N.Y. 1968).
245. Kerr, supra note 76, at 552, n.31 (1990);
246. ALEKA MANDARAKA-SHEPPARD, MODERN MARITIME LAW, 638 (2d ed. 2007).
247. Salvage Convention, art. 6.3 provides that nothing in art. 6 affects the application of art. 7, which allows for the annulment or modification of inequitable contracts. Article 7 is considered in Section II(K).
248. F.3d 1108, 1999 AMC 516 (9th Cir. 1998).
249. Id., 163 F.3d at 1118, 1999 AMC at 528.
250. The salvage contract was agreed in "early January 1995."
251. Id., 163 F.3d at 1112,1999 AMC at 518.
252. Nonis,3ABenedict, supra note 13,§ 151;The JohnWurts, 13F.Cas.903,905 (S.D.N.Y. 1847)(No. 7,434)("The law will protect [the salvor] against all interference by others, even the true owners");
253. The Yucatan, 30 F.Cas. 893,896 (DPla 1847)(No. 18,194)("Even the master of a ship himself would not have a right to dispossess a salvor without his consent who had earned a clear right to salvage by rendering actual meritorious service");
254. Lathrop v. Unidentified, Wrecked & Abandoned Vessel, 817 F.Supp. 953, 961 (M.D. Fla, 1993)("Once [the salvor is] in possession, no other person can lawfully intrude upon that possession, including the salved vessel's master or owner").
255. Treasure Salvors, Inc. v. Unidentified Wrecked & Abandoned Sailing Vessel, 640 F.2d 560, 567, 1981 AMC 1857, 1865 (5th Cir. 1981).
256. See, e.g., R.M.S. Titanic, Inc. v. Wrecked and Abandoned Vessel, 924 F.Supp. 714, 1996 AMC 2481 (E.D. Va, 1996).
257. See generally Norris, 3A Benedict, supra note 13, § 120.
258. LaPlante v. Sun Coast Marine Services, Inc., 279 F. Supp. 2d 678,687, 2003 AMC 1267, 1275-76 (D.S.C. 2003).
259. F.2d437,441, 1961 AMC 1641, 1647 (5th Cir. 1961).
260. Id., 292 F.2d at 440-41,1961 AMC at 1647.
261. The Noah's Ark. 292 F.2d at 440-41,1961 AMC at 1647.
262. Id., 292 F.2d at 440, 1961 AMC at 1647.
263. F. Supp. 2d 254, 2006 AMC 2786 (D.Mass. 2006).
264. Id., 436 F. Supp. 2d at 260; 2006 AMC at 2792.
265. Id., 436 F. Supp. 2d at 262; 2006 AMC at 2794-95.
266. Id., 436 F. Supp. 2d at 263; 2006 AMC at 2796.
267. Id., 436 F. Supp. 2d at 263-64; 2006 AMC at 2796.
268. Id., 436 F. Supp. 2d at 273; 2006 AMC at 2809, quoting Ocean Services Towing and Salvage, Inc. v. Brown, 810 F. Supp. 1258, 1264, 1993 AMC 2701 (S.D. Fla. 1993).
269. It seems more likely that any negligence in the testing of the engines was on the part of the yacht's skipper, who did not follow the salvor's instructions, with the result that the salvage was made considerably more difficult for one of the salvors, who was thrown into the cold sea, but no more difficult for the salvage of the yacht itself. Id., 436 F. Supp. 2d at 263-64; 2006 AMC at 2796.
270. Ocean Services Towing and Salvage, Inc. v. Brown, 810 F.Supp. 1258, 1264, 1993 AMC 2701 (S.D.Fla. 1993).
271. Kerr, supra note 76, at 537.
272. Westar Marine Services v. Heerema Marine Contractors, S.A., 621 F.Supp. 1135, 1142-44, 1988 AMC 1122, 1132-36 (NXJ.Cal. 1985);
273. Hendricks v. Tug Gordon Gill, 737 F.Supp. 1099, 1104, 1989 AMC 1960, 1965 (D.Alaska 1989).
274. F.2d 243,247, 1987 AMC 2515, 2519-20 (5th Cir. 1987).
275. U.S.C. §§ 30501-12 (formerly codified at 46 app. U.S.C. 181-89).
276. Allssas Maritime, S,A. v. M/V Mimosa, 820 F.2d 129,130, 1987 AMC 2515,2523 (5th cir. 1987).
277. F.Supp. 2d 553, 558, 2006 AMC 1401,1406 (D.S.C. 2006)("In the present case, by taking the lifeboat under tow, the Plaintiffs removed the SKS TORRENS from potential liability from claims for damage or injury to vessels which might have collided with the lost Lifeboat").
278. F.Supp. 440, 443,1993 AMC 1042, 1047 (E.D.La. 1992).
279. Id., citing Gaskell, supra note 102, at 7 n. 16.
280. Kerr, supra note 76, at 537.
281. Id., at 538., (2006) 163 F.C.R. 151 (Fed. Ct. Austl.).
282. aff'd (2007) 163 F.C.R. 183 (Full Ct. Fed. Ct. Austl.).
283. Id., 163 F.C.R. at 165.
284. Id.,at 166., (2007) 163 F.C.R. 183, 196.
285. Allseas Maritime, S.A. v. M/V Mimosa, 812 F.2d 243,244,1987 AMC 2515,2516 (5th Cir. 1987).
286. When considering the salvors' challenge to the right of the salved ship to limit its liability, the court held that the salvors had not discharged their initial burden of proving negligence or unseaworthiness on the part of the salved ship. Id., 812 F.2d at 248, 1987 AMC at 2521.
287. The salvors petitioned for rehearing to consider further evidence of negligence on the part of the salved ship, but the Fifth Circuit rejected the petition, saying "We cannot try the issue on appeal." Allseas Maritime, S.A. v. M/V Mimosa, 820 F.2d 129, 130, 1987 AMC 2515, 2523 (5th Cir. 1987).
288. In re Yamashita-Shinnihon Risen, 305 F.Supp. 796 (D.Or. 1969); St. Paul Marine Transp. Corp. v. Cerro Sales Corp., 313 F.Supp. 377 (D.Haw. 1970);
289. Markakis v. S/S Volendam, 486 F.Supp. 1103, 1110 n.28, 1980 AMC 915, 925 n.28 (S.D.N.Y. 1980); In re Ta Chi Nav. (Panama) Corp., S.A., 583 F.Supp. 1322, 1329,1985 AMC 1367, 1375 (S.D.N.Y. 1984).
290. In re Yamashita-Shinnihon, 305 F. Supp. at 800; Markakis, 486 F.Supp. at 1110 n.28, 1980 AMC at 925 n.28;
291. In re Ta Chi, 583 F.Supp. at 1329, 1985 AMC at 1375.
292. St. Paul Marine Transp. Corp. v. Cerro Sales Corp., 313 F.Supp. 377, 379, 1970 AMC 1742, 1475 (D.Haw. 1970), aff'd 505 F.2d 1115, 1118 n.l (9th Cir. 1974);
293. In re Ta Chi, 583 F.Supp. at 1329, 1985 AMC at 1375.
294. See Steven F. Friedell, Salvage, 31 J. Mar. L. & Com. 311,315 (2000).
295. In re Yamashita-Shinnihon Kisen, 305 F.Supp. 796,800 (D.Or. 1969); In re Ta Chi Nav. (Panama) Corp., S.A., 583 F.Supp. 1322, 1329, 1985 AMC 1367, 1375 (S.D.N.Y. 1984).
296. Nothing in the text of 46 U.S.C. § 80107(a) (or that of its predecessor, 46 app. U.S.C. § 729) supports the unreasoned assertion made in the cases cited supra note 204. The provision merely states that a life salvor "is entitled to a fair share of the payment awarded to the salvor for salvaging [sic] the vessel or other property or preventing or minimizing damage to the environment." There is nothing to suggest that the payment from which the life salvor's "fair share" is taken must be pure salvage reward. See generally Steven F. Friedell, Compensation and Reward for Saving Life at Sea, 77 Mich. L. Rev. 1218,1240-63 (1979).
297. Salvage Convention 1989, supra note 1, art. 16(2) provides: "A salvor of human life, who has taken part in the services rendered on the occasion of the accident giving rise to salvage, is entitled to a fair share of the payment awarded to the salvor for salving the vessel or other property or preventing or minimizing damage to the environment."
298. Friedell, supra note 203, at 315 ("[T]he treaty clarifies that the life salvor is entitled to share in a property salvage award made under contract").
299. Peninsular & Oriental Steam Nav. Co. v. Overseas Oil Carriers, Inc., 553 F.2d 830,836,1977 AMC 283,290 (2d Cir. 1977). For examples of condemnation of the rule, see Lawrence Jarett, The Life Salvor Problem in Admiralty, 63 Yale L J. 779 (1954); Friedell, supra note 205.
300. The Emblem, 8 F. Cas. 611 (D.Me. 1840)(No. 4,434); The George W. Clyde, 80 F. 157, 158 (E.D.N.Y. 1897); The Plymouth Rock, 9 F. 413,418 (S.D.N.Y. 1881)("[T]he saving of human life, disassociated from the saving of property, is not a subject of salvage compensation").
301. See The Zephyrus, 1 W. Rob. 329, 331, 166 Eng. Rep. 596, 596-97 (Adm. 1842);
302. Friedell, supra note 205, at 1226-27.
303. See, e.g., U.K. P. & I. Club, Rules and Bye-Laws 2008, Rule 2, Section 9, available at http://www.ukpandi.com/ukpandi/resource.nsf/ Files/2008%20Rules%20&%20Correspondents%20Book%20-%20Web%20edition/ $FILE/2008+Rules+&+orrespondents+Book+-+Web+edition.pdf (last visited March 13th, 2008). The cover applies only if the life salvage liability is not recoverable under the ship's hull and machinery insurance, as it would be if the ship were to be salved. Id.
304. Merchant Shipping Act 1995, s. 224(1), Sch. 11, Part II, para. 5. This provision applies to life salvage from a vessel of any nationality in U.K. waters or a U.K. vessel in any waters.
305. U.S. 85, 75 S.Ct. 629 (1955).
306. Id., 349 U.S. at 85,75 S.Ct. at 630.
307. Dixilyn Drilling Corp. v. Crescent Towing & Salvage Co., 372 U.S. 697, 83 S.Ct. 967 (1963).
308. F. Supp. 2d 754, 758,1998 AMC 1774, 1777-78 (S.D. Tex. 1998)
309. Id., 25 F. Supp. 2d at 757, 758-9, 1998 AMC at 1776, 1778.
310. U.S. 186,19 S.Ct. 146 (1898).
311. Id., 172 U.S. at 197,19 S.Ct. at 150.
312. Id., 172 U.S. at 206, 19 S.Ct. at 153 ("Had the agreement been made with less deliberation or pending a peril more imminent, our conclusion might have been different").
313. Bisso, supra note 213, 349 U.S. at 91, 75 S.Ct. at 633.
314. Salvage Convention 1989, supra note 1, art. 1(a).
315. Kerr, supra note 76, at 533.
316. The Daniel Ball, 77 U.S. (10 Wall.) 557, 563,19 L. Ed. 999 (1871).
317. U.S.C. § 1331.
318. See, e.g., Linton v. Great Lakes Dredge & Dock Co., 964 F.2d 1480, 1484 n.7, 1992 AMC 2789, 2793 n.7(5th Cir. 1992)("[A]n action in rem is not available in an action 'at law' in federal court").
319. F. Supp. 2d 132,2004 AMC 625 (D.Me. 2003).
320. Id. 294 F. Supp. 2d at 140 n.5, 2004 AMC at 636 n.5.
321. The court referred to the Salvage Convention 1989, art. 4, which provides that the Convention does not apply to "warships or other non-commercial vessels owned or operated by a State and entitled, at the time of salvage operations, to sovereign immunity." Id. The court did not address the broad definition of salvable property in the Salvage Convention 1989, art. 1(c), see supra note 113.
322. The Moses Taylor, 71 U.S. (4 Wall.) 411, 18 L.Ed. 397 (1866);
323. The Hine v. Trevor, 71 U.S. (4 Wall.) 555, 18 LEd. 451 (1866);
324. Red Cross Line v. Atlantic Fruit Co., 264 U.S. 109, 124, 44 S.Ct. 274, 277 (1924); American Dredging Co. v. Miller, 510 U.S. 443, 446-47, 114 S.Ct. 981, 985 (1994).
325. S.E.2d 846, 2003 AMC 750 (Ga. 2003).
326. Id., 578 S.E.2d at 850,2003 AMC at 754, quoting Southern Pac. Co. v. Jensen, 244 U.S. 205, 218, 37 S.Ct. 524,530 (1917).
327. F. Supp. 2d 538, 2004 AMC 370 (D.N.J. 2004).
328. Id., 303 F. Supp. 2d at 543, 2004 AMC at 374.
329. In re G.W. Contractors, Ltd, Civ. A. Nos. 91-2678, 92-224 and 92-697, 1992 WL 167046 at *1 (E.D. La. 1992)(noting previous remand of salvage action to state court); Carr v. Jetter, 103 F. Supp. 2d 1122, 1123-24 (E.D. Wis. 2000);
330. Sebastian Tow Boat & Salvage v. Slavens, No. 02-759, 2002 WL 32063121 at *l-2 (M.D. Fla. 2002).
331. CHARLES ALAN WRIGHT et al., FEDERAL PRACTICE AND PROCEDURE §3527 (2nd cum. ed. 1987). See, e.g., Tafflin v. Levitt,493 U.S. 455,470,110 S.Ct. 792,801 (1990)(Scalia J. concur-ring)("It ⋯takes an affirmative act of power under the Supremacy Clause to oust the States of jurisdiction - an exercise of ⋯ the power of Congress to withdraw federal claims from state-court jurisdiction").
332. In exercising concurrent in personam jurisdiction in admiralty under the "saving to suitors" clause, a state court may apply state remedies, so long as they are not inconsistent with substantive federal maritime law. Offshore Logistics, Inc. v. Tallentire, 477 U.S. 207, 224, 106 S.Ct. 2485, 2495 (1986);
333. American Dredging Co. v. Miller, 510 U.S. 443,447,114 S.Ct. 981,985 (1994). It is difficult to imagine how application of state restitution or quantum meruit law would not be inconsistent with substantive federal salvage law, as embodied in the Salvage Convention 1989 and general maritime law.
334. U.S. Const., art. VI, cl. 2. See supra note 16.
335. Salvage Convention 1989, supra note 1, arts. 2, 6.
336. Id., art. 1(a).
337. Phillips v. Sea Tow/Sea Spill of Savannah, 578 S.E.2d 846, 851, 2003 AMC 750,756 (Ga. 2003).
338. U.S. CONST., art. VI, cl. 2.
339. Whitney v. Robertson, 124 U.S. 190, 194, 8 S.Ct. 456,458 (1888); Medellin v. Texas, - U.S. -, 128 S.Ct. 1346,1356 (2008).
340. Some treaties are reproduced in the Code as a note to a related Code provision or as an appendix to a Code title. See, e.g., the CISG, supra note 16, which is reproduced in 15 U.S.C. App.; the U.N. Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards 1958,21 U.S.T. 2517, 330 U.N.T.S. 38 (1958)(the New York Convention), is reproduced in 9 U.S.C. §201 Note.
341. The Salvage Convention 1989 is reproduced at 1989 AMC 2989-3000.
342. Edye v. Robertson (The Head Money Cases), 112 U.S. 580, 598-99,5 S.Ct. 247,254 (1884).
343. Chan v. Korean Air Lines Co. Ltd, 490 U.S. 122, 134, 109 S.Ct. 1676, 1683-84 (1989)("We must thus be governed by the text - solemnly adopted by the governments of many separate nations -⋯ [W]here the text is clear, as it is here, we have no power to insert an amendment");
344. Zicherman v. Korean Air Lines Co. Ltd, 516 U.S. 217, 223-25, 116 S.Ct. 629, 633-34 (1996). The position is different in relation to treaties like the CISG, supra note 16, which by their terms (in the case of the CISG, art. 7(2)) authorize courts to develop law under the treaty, thereby authorizing federal courts to develop federal common law rules of decision for issues not directly resolved by the treaty, which they could not otherwise do. See Michael van Alstine, Dynamic Treaty Interpretation, 146 U. Pa. L. Rev. 687,733-34 (1998);
345. Michael van Alstine, The Judicial Power and Treaty Delegation, 90 Cal. L. Rev. 1263, 1290-91 (2002).