The paranasal sinuses: The last frontier in craniofacial biology

Anatomical Record

Volumn 291, Issue 11, 2008, Pages 1350-1361

  Márquez, Samuel ^a,b  

^a SUNY DOWNSTATE MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b NONE   (United States)

Author keywords

Adaptation; Dinosaurs; Evolution; Neanderthals; New World monkeys; Old World monkeys; Paranasal sinus; Phylogenetic history; Primates; Systematics

Indexed keywords

ANATOMY; ANIMAL; ARTICLE; BIOMECHANICS; BRAIN; FACE; GENETIC VARIABILITY; HISTOLOGY; HISTORY; HUMAN; NOSE CAVITY; PARANASAL SINUS; PHYSIOLOGY; PRIMATE; SPECIES DIFFERENCE; VERTEBRATE;

ANATOMY; ANIMALS; BIOMECHANICS; BRAIN; FACE; GENETIC VARIATION; HISTORY, 15TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; NASAL CAVITY; PARANASAL SINUSES; PRIMATES; SPECIES SPECIFICITY; VERTEBRATES;

EID: 58149350300     PISSN: 19328486     EISSN: 19328494     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/ar.20791     Document Type: Article

References (146)

1. Alger LJ. 1943. A new theory of physiology of the sinuses. Lancet 58:511-512.
2. Andrews P, Martin L. 1987. Cladistic relationships of extant and fossil hominoids. J Hum Evol 16:101-118.
3. Antón SC. 1996. Cranial adaptation to a high attrition diet in Japanese macaques. Int J Primatol 17:401-427.
4. Arsuaga JL, Martinez I, Gracia A, Lorenzo C. 1997. The Sima de los Huesos crania (Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain). A comparative study. J Hum Evol 33:219-281.
5. Asherson N. 1965. Identification by frontal sinus prints. London: J. K. Lewis.
6. Badoux DM. 1966. Framed structures in the mammalian skull. Acta Morphol Neerl Scand 6:239-250.
7. Bauhin C. 1621. Theatrum anatomicum Caspari Bauhini. 2. Auflage von J. Th. De Bry, Basel.
8. Berengario da Carpi G. 1522. Isagogae breves perlucide ac uberime in anatomiam humani corporis a communi medicorum academia usitatam. Bonoiae, per B. Hectoris.
9. Bignon F. 1889. Contribution a l'étude de la pneumaticité chez les oiseaux. Les cellules aëriennes cervico-céphalique des oiseaux et leurs rapports avec les os de la tête. Mémoires de la Société Zoolologique de France 2:260-320.
10. Blaney SP. 1986. An allometric study of the frontal sinus in Gorilla, Pan and Pongo. Folia Primatol (Basel) 47:81-96.
11. Blaney SPA. 1990. Why paranasal sinuses? J Laryngol Otol 104: 690-693.
12. Blanton PL, Biggs NL. 1969. Eighteen hundred years of controversy: the paranasal sinuses. Am J Anat 124:135-148.
13. Bosworth FH. 1888. The phsyiology of the nose. Med News 53:117-124.
14. Braune W, Clasen FE. 1877. Die Nebenhöhlen der menschlichen Nase in ihre Bedeutung für den Mechanismus des Rieches. Z f Anat 2:1-28.
15. Bremer JL. 1940. The pneumatization of the head of the common fowl. J Morphol 67:143-157.
16. Buhler P. 1970. Schadelmorphologie und Kiefermechanik der Caprimulgidae (Aves). Z f Morph der Tiere 66:337-399.
17. Buhler P. 1972. Sandwich structures in the skull capsules of various birds - the principle of lightweight structures in organisms. Mitterilungen aus dem Institut für leichte Flächentragwerke (Stuttgart) 4:39-50.
18. Buhler P. 1986. Das Vogelskelett - hochentwickelter Knochern-Leichbau. Arcus 5:221-228.
19. Cave AJE, Haines RW. 1940. The paranasal sinuses of the anthropoid apes. J Anat 74:493-523.
20. Cleland J. 1862. On the relations of the vomer, ethmoid, and inter-maxillary bones. Phil Trans 62:289-321.
21. Coffin LA. 1905. The development of the accessory sinuses of nose. Am J Med Sci Feb 129:297-312.
22. Conroy GC, Vannier MW. 1984. Non-invasive three dimensional computer imaging of matrix filled fossil skulls by high resolution computed tomography. Science 223:457-458.
23. Crelin E. 1976. Development of the upper respiratory system. Clin Symposia 28:1-30.
24. Daegling DJ. 1992. Mandibular morphology and diet in the genus Cebus. Int Primatol 13:545-570.
25. Da Vinci L. 1489. Quaderni d'anatomia. I-VT. pubblicati da C. L. Vangensten, A. Fonahn, H. Hopstock. 6 vols. Christiania, F. Dybwad, 1911-1916.
26. Davis B. 1865. The Neanderthal skull: its formation considered anatomically. J Anthropol Soc Lond 3:15-19.
27. Davis WE, Templer J, Parsons DS. 1996 Anatomy of the paranasal sinuses. In DS Parsons (ed.) Otolaryngol Clin North Am 29:57-74.
28. Dean D, Delson E. 1992. Paleoanthropology. Second gorilla or third chimp? Nature 359:676-677.
29. Del Canizo A. 1959. Alcum nuovi concetti sulla fisiologia sinusale e delle cellule mastoidee. Arch Ital Otol 70:20.
30. Dieulafé L. 1906. Morphology and Embryology of the Nasal Fossae of Vertebrates. (Translated by Loeb HB. St. Louis: St. Louis University. Reprinted from Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1906).
31. Duarte C, Mauricio J, Pettitt PB, Souto P, Trinkaus E, van der Plicht H, Zilhao J. 1999. The early upper paleolithic human skeleton from the Abrigo do Lagar Velho (Portugal) and modern human emergence in Iberia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:7604-7609.
32. Du Brul EL. 1965. The skull of the lion marmoset leontideus rosalia linneaus: a study in biomechanical adaptation. Am J Phys Anthropol 23:261-276.
33. DuBrul EL. 1988. Sicher and DuBrul's Oral Anatomy. 8th ed. St. Louis: Ishiyaku EuroAmerica, Inc.
34. Dyce KM, Sack WO, Wensing CJG. 1987 Textbook of Veterinary Anatomy. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co.
35. Eckert-Mobius A. 1933. Comparative study of the nasal sinuses in man and in animals Arch f OhrenNasen-u Kehlkopfh 134:287-307.
36. Eckley WT. 1904. On the accessory sinuses. Chicago Med Recorder 26:243-253.
37. Enlow DH. 1968. The human face: an account of the postnatal growth and development of the craniofacial skeleton. New York: Hoeber Medical Division, Harper and Row Publishers.
38. Edinger T. 1938. Ueber Steinkerne der irn- und Ohr-Höhlen der Mesosuchier Goniopholis und Pholidosaurus aus dem Bückeburger Wealden. Acta Zool 19:467-505.
39. Fatterpekar GM, Delman BN, Som PM. 2008. Imaging the paranasal sinuses: where we are and where we are going. Anat Rec 291:1564-1572.
40. Franciscus RG. 1999. Neanderthal nasal structures and upper respiratory tract "specialization." Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:1805-1809.
41. Frers D. 1909. Studien über die postembryonale entwickelung der Nebenhöhlen der Nase. Vehr D Vereins Deutscher Lryn S 191.
42. Galen (circ 130 AD) cited in Blanton and Biggs, 1969.
43. Gannon PJ, Doyle WJ, Ganjian E, Márquez S, Gnoy A, Gabrielle HS, Lawson W. 1997. Maxillary sinus mucosal blood flow during nasal vs tracheal respiration. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 123:1386-1840.
44. Geist V. 1971. Mountain sheep. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
45. Gould S, Lewontin R. 1979. The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: a critique of the adaptationist programme. Proc Roy Soc Lond B 205:581-598.
46. Grünwald L. 1925. Deskriptive und topograhische Anatomie der Nase und ihrer Nebenhöhlen. In: Denker A, Kahler O, editors. Die Krankheiten der Luftwege und der Mundhöhle. Berlin-Munich: Springer-Bergman, Bd. I. p 1-95.
47. Haller A. 1769. Elementa physiologiae corporis humani. Tumus Quintus: Sensus externi interni. Lausannae, MDCCLXIX.
48. Hartz HJ. 1909 Remarks on the physiology and development of the nose and accessory sinuses and nasal reflexes, with special reference to the function and importance of the turbinated bodies. Ann Otol Rhinol Otolaryngol 18:709-738.
49. Hershkovitz P. 1977. Living New World monkeys (Platyrrhini) with an Introduction to Primates. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
50. Ingersoll JM. 1906. The function of the accessory cavities of the nose. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 15:757-770.
51. Ingersoll JM. 1922. Some points in the comparative anatomy of the nose and the accessory sinuses which account for the variations in these structures in man. Trans Am Laryngol Rhinol Otol Soc 28:162-167.
52. Keith A. 1902a. The relationship of the eruption of the permanent molar teeth to the expansion of the maxillary sinus. Br J Dent Sci 45:529-544.
53. Keith A. 1902b. Inflation of the nasal canal in the skulls of adult gorillas and chimpanzees, and the relative development of the sinus maxillaris and inferior meatus in man and apes. J Anat Physioi 36:47-51.
54. Killian G. 1900. Anatomie der Nase menschilcher Embryonen. II Die ursprüngliche Morphologie der Siebbeingegend. Arch für Laryngologie und Rhinologie Wien: Hölder. p 1004-1096.
55. Kimbel WH, Johanson DC, Rak Y. 1997. Systematic assessment of a maxilla of Homo from Hadar, Ethiopia. Am J Phys Anthropol 103:235-262.
56. King W. 1864. The reputed fossil man of the Neanderthal. Q J Sci 1:88-97.
57. Koppe T, Ohkawa Y. 1999. Pneumatization of the facial skeleton in catarrhine primates. In Koppe T, Nagai H, Alt KW, editors. The paranasal sinuses of higher primates. Chicago: Quintessence Publishing Co., Inc. p 77-119.
58. Krings M, Geisert H, Schmitz RW, Krainitzki H, Paabo S. 1999. DNA sequence of the mitochondrial hypervariable region II from the neandertal type specimen. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:5581-5585.
59. Kuykendall KL, Rae TC. 2008. Presence of the maxillary sinus in fossil Colobinae (Cercopithecoides williamsi) from South Africa. Anat Rec 291:1499-1505.
60. Laitman JT, Reidenberg JS, Márquez S, Gannon PJ. 1996. What the nose knows: new understandings of Neanderthal upper respiratory tract specializations. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:10543-10545.
61. Lawson W. 1994. The intranasal ethmoidectomy: evolution and an assessment of the procedure. Laryngoscope 104 (Part 2):1-49.
62. Lawson W, Patel ZM, Lin FY. 2008. The development and pathologic processes that influence maxillary sinus pneumatization. Anat Rec 291:1554-1563.
63. Leakey M. Walker A. 1997. Afropithecus - Function and phylogeny. In Begun DR, Ward CV, Rose MD, editors. Function, phylogeny, and fossils. New York: Plenum Press.
64. Lieberman D. 1998. Eve spoke: human language and human evolution. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
65. Lund VJ. 1988. The maxillary sinus of higher primates. Acta Otolaryngol (Stockh.) 105:163-171.
66. Lundberg JO. 2008. Nitric oxide and the paranasal sinuses. Anat Rec 291:1479-1484.
67. Lundberg JO, Rinder J, Weitzberg E, Lundberg JM, Alving K. 1994. Nasally exhaled nitric oxide in humans originates mainly in the paranasal sinuses. Acta Physiol Scand 152:431-432.
68. Maier W. 1980. Nasal structures in old and new world primates. In Ciochon RL, Chiarelli AB, editors. Evolutionary biology of the New World monkeys and continental drift. New York: Plenum Press. p 219-241.
69. Maier W. 1986. Functional principles of the growing skull of primates as shown by the posterior cupula of the nasal capsule. In Sakka M. editor. Définition et Origines de L'Homme. Paris: CNRS. p 199-207.
70. Maier W. 1993. Cranial morphology, of the Therian common ancestor, as suggested by the adaptations of Neonate Marsupials. In Szalay FS, Novacek MJ, McKenna MC, editors. Mammal phylogeny: mesozoic differentiation multituberculates, monotremes, early therians, and marsupials. Stutgart: Springer Verlag.
71. Márquez S, Lawson W, Schaefer S, Laitman JT. 2002a. Anatomy of the nasal accessory sinuses. In Wackym PA, Rice DH, editors. Minimally invasive surgery of the head, neck, and cranial base. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p 153-193.
72. Márquez S. 2002b. The human nasal complex: a study of its anatomy, function and evolution by CT, comparative and morphometric methods. Ph.D. Dissertation, City University of New York.
73. Márquez S, Laitman JT. 2008. Climatic effects of the nasal complex: a CT imaging, comparative anatomical and morphometric investigation of Macaca mulatta and Macaca fascicularis. Anat Rec 291:1420-1445.
74. Márquez S, Tessema B, Clement PAR, Schaefer SD. 2008. Development of the ethmoid sinus and extramural migration: the anatomical basis of this paranasal sinus. Anat Rec 291:1535-1553.
75. Márquez S, Mowbray K, Sawyer GJ, Jacob T, Silvers A. 2001 A new fossil hominin calvaria from Indonesia - Sambungmacan 3. Anat Rec 262:344-368.
76. Mihalkovics V. 1898. Nasenhöhle und jacobsonsches organ: eine morphologische studie. Weisbaden: JF Bergmann.
77. Möller W 1969. Vergleichend-morphologische Unersuchungen an Schädeln höckertragender Anatiden mit einem Beitrag zur Mechanik des Anatidenschädels. III. Gegenbaurs Morph Jahr 113:321-345.
78. Moore KL, Persaud TVN 1993. The developing human. 5th ed. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co.
79. Mosher H. 1922. Discussant to Ingersoll (1922) presentation. p 167.
80. Moss ML. 1986. Newer analytical models of craniofacial growth. Nova Acta Leopoldina NF 58:17-25.
81. Mouret J. 1898. Anatomie des cellules ethmoïdales. Revue hebd de Laryng d'Otol et de Rhinol 31:913-924.
82. Negus V. 1957 The function of the paranasal sinuses. AMA Arch Otolaryngol 66:430-442.
83. Negus V. 1958. The comparative anatomy and physiology of the nose and paranasal sinuses. London: E & S Livingstone LTD.
84. Nemours PR. 1931. A comparison of the accessory nasal sinuses of man with those of lower vertebrates. Trans Am Laryngol Rhinol Otol Soc:195-199.
85. Neumayer. 1901. Ueber den Luftwechsel in den Nebenhohlen. Mon f Ohrenhk S 504.
86. O'Malley JF. 1924. Evolution of the nasal cavities and sinuses in relation to function. J Laryngol Otol 39:57-64.
87. Onodi A. 1903. Des rapports entre le nerf optique et le sinus sphénoidal. La cellule ethmoïdale postérieure en particulier. Revue hebd de Laryng d'Otol et de Rhino. 25:721-740.
88. Onodi A. 1908. The optic nerve and the accessory cavities of the nose. Contribution to the study of canalicular neuritis and atrophy of the optic nerves of nasal origin. Authorized translation by J. Lückhoff. New York: William Wood & Company. (Also appeared in Ann Otol Rhinol Otolaryngol 18:1-52.)
89. Paulli S. 1900a. Über die pneumaticität des Schädels bei den Säugethieren. Eine morphologische Studie III. Über die Morphologie des Siebbeins und Pneumaticität bei den Insectivoren, Hyracoideen, Chiropteren, Carnivoren, Pinnipedien, Edentates, Rodentiern, Prosimien und Primaten. Gegenbaurs. Morph Jahrb 28:483-564.
90. Paulli S. 1900b. Über die Pneumaticität des Schädels bei den Säugethieren. Eine morphologische Studie II. Über die Morphologie des Siebbeins der Pneumaticität bei den Ungulaten und Probosciden. Gegenbaurs. Morph Jahrb 28:179-251.
91. Paulli S. 1900C. Über die Pneumaticität des Schädels bei den Säugethieren. Eine morphologische Studie I. Über den Bau des Siebbeins. Über die Morphologie des Siebbeins der Pneumaticität bei den Monotremen und den Marsupialiern. Gegenbaurs. Morph Jahrb 28:147-178.
92. Ponce de León MS, Zollikofer CPE. 2001. Neanderthal cranial ontogeny and its implications for late hominid diversity. Nature 412:534-538.
93. Preuschoft H, Witte H, Witzel U. 2002. Pneumatized spaces, sinuses and spongy bones in the skulls of primates. Anthropol Anz 60:67-79.
94. Proetz AW. 1938. Nasal physiology and its relation to the surgery of the accessory nasal sinuses. Proc Roy Soc Med J Laryngol Otol 31:1408-1416.
95. Proetz AW. 1922. Observations upon the formation and function of the accessory nasal sinuses and the mastoid cells. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 31:1083-1096.
96. Proetz AW. 1941. Applied physiology of the nose. 1st ed. St. Louis: Annals Publishing Co.
97. Proetz AW. 1953. Essays on the applied physiology of the nose. 2nd ed. St. Louis: Annals Publishing Co.
98. Rae T. 1997. The early evolution of the hominoid face. In: Begun D, Ward C, Rose M, editors. Function, phylogeny, and fossils: miocene hominoid evolution and adaptations. New York: Plenum Press.
99. Rae TC, Koppe T. 2000. The term "lateral recess" and craniofacial pneumatization in Old World monkeys (Mammalia, Primates, Cercopithecoidea). J Morph 258:193-199.
100. Rae TC, Koppe T. 2008. Independence of biomechanical forces and craniofacial pneumatization in Cebus. Anat Rec 291:1414-1419.
101. Rae TC, Hill RA, Ramada Y, Koppe T. 2003. Clinal variation of maxillary sinus volume in Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata). Am J Primatol 59:153-158.
102. Reidenberg JS, Laitman JT. 2008. Sisters of the sinuses: cetacean air sacs. Anat Rec 291:1389-1396.
103. Rhys Evans PH. 1992. The paranasal sinuses and other enigmas: an aquatic evolutionary theory. J Laryngol Otol 106:214-225.
104. Rice DH, Gluckman JL. 1995. Physiology. In Donald PJ, Gluckman JL, Rice DH, editors. The sinuses. New York: Raven Press. p 49-56.
105. Rui R, Den L, Gourlaouen L. 1960. Contribution à l'étude du rôle des sinus paraassaux. Revue de Laryngologie et Oto-Rhinologie 81:796-839.
106. Rossie JB. 2006. Ontogeny and homology of the paranasal sinuses in Platyrrhini (Mammalia: Primates). J. Morphol 267:1-40.
107. Rossie JB. 2008. The phylogenetic significance of anthropoid paranasal sinuses. Anat Rec 291:1554-1563.
108. Rossie JB, Simons EL, Gauld SC, Rasmussen DT. 2002. Paranasal sinus anatomy of Aegyptopithecus: implications for hominoid origins. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:8454-8456.
109. Sato C. 1938. Vergleichende Studien über die Morphologie und den Bau der Schleimhaut der Nasennebenhöhlen bei verschiedenen Tieren (Saugetieren, Vogeln und Amphibien.) Mitt a.d. Med Akad zu Kioto 22:277.
110. Schaffer WM, Reed CA. 1972. The co-evolution of social behavior and cranial morphology in sheep and goats (Bovidae, Caprini). Fieldiana Zoo 61:1-88.
111. Scholz M. 1998. Fossil-DNA based classification of the most Northern Neanderthal man. International Workshop in the Neanderthal Museum: Central and Eastern Europe from 50,000 - 30,000 B.P. (abstract, p 72).
112. Schummer A, Nickel R, Sack WO. 1979. The viscera of the domestic mammals. 2nd ed. New York: Springer-Verlag.
113. Schwartz JH. 1987. The red ape: orang-utans and human origins. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
114. Schwartz JH, Teschler-Nicola M. 2008. Architecture of the nasal complex in Neanderthals: comparison with other hominids and phylogenetic significance. Anat Rec 291:1517-1534.
115. Shea BT. 1977. Eskimo craniofacial morphology, cold stress and the maxillary sinus. Am J Phys Anthropol 47:289-300.
116. Shea JJ. 1936. Morphologic characteristics of the sinuses. Arch Otolaryngol 23:484-487.
117. Sicher H. 1952. Oral anatomy. 2nd ed. St. Louis: C. V. Mosby Co.
118. Seidler H, Falk D, Stringer C, Wilfing H, Müller G, zur Nedden D, Weber G, Reicheis W, Arsuaga J-L. 1997. A comparative study of stereolithographically modelled skulls of Petralona Pand Broken Hill: implications for future studiesof middle Pleistocene hominid evolution. J Hum Evol 33:691-703.
119. Sieur C, Jacob O. 1901 Recherches anatomiques cliniques et opératoires sur les fosses nasales et leurs sinus. Paris: J Rueff.
120. Smith TD, Rossie JB, Docherty BA, Cooper GM, Bonar CJ, Silverio AL, Burrows AM. 2008. Fate of the nasal capsular cartilages in prenatal and perinatal tamarins (Saguinus geoffroyi) and extent of secondary pneumatization of maxillary and frontal sinuses. Anat Rec 291:1397-1413.
121. Spoor F, Wood B, Zonneveld F. 1994. Implications of early hominid labyrinthine morphology for the evolution of human bipedal locmotion. Nature 369:645-648.
122. Spoor F, Jeffery N, Zonneveld F. 2000. Imaging skeletal growth and evolution. In O'Higgins P, Cohn M, editors. Development, growth and evolution: implications for the study of the hominid skeleton. London: Academic Press.
123. Stammberger H. 1989. History of rhinology: anatomy of the paranasal sinuses. Rhinology 27:197-210.
124. Stammberger HR, Bolger WE, Clement PAR, Hosemann W, Kuhn FA, Lanza DC, Leopold DA, Ohnishi R, Passàli D, Schaefer SD, Wayoff MR, Zinreich SJ. 1995. Paranasal sinuses: anatomic terminology and nomenclature. In Kennedy DW, editor. International conference on sinus disease: terminology, staging, therapy. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngcol 104 (suppl 167):7-16.
125. Stierna PLE, Westrin KM. 1999. Physiology of the paranasal sinuses in health and disease. In Koppe T, Nagai H, Alt KW, editors. The paranasal sinuses of higher primates. Chicago: Quintessence Publishing Co., Inc. p 51-64.
126. Strickland GW. 1932 Accesssory nasal sinus infections in children. J M Soc New Jersey 29:108-111.
127. Stringer C, Gamble C. 1993. In search of the Neanderthals: solving the puzzle of human origins. London: Thames and Hudson, Ltd.
128. Suarez ADC. 1952. Una nueva teoria sobre la posible function de los senos para-nasales y celdas mastoidaas. Rev Espan Oto-neurooftal 11:336.
129. Takahashi RYO. 1983. The formation of the human paranasal sinuses. Acta Otolaryngol (Stockh.) 408 (Suppl):2-28.
130. Tillier AM. 1977. La pneumatization du massif cranio-facial chez les homes actuels et fossils (suite). Bull Et Mem.de la Soc D'Anthrop de Paris 4:287-316.
131. Tillaux P. 1862. Rôle des sinus de la face. Thèse Méd. Paris.
132. Ubelacker DH. 1984; Positive identification from radiographic comparison of frontal sinus patterns. In Rathbun TA, Buiskstra JE, editors. Human identification: case studies in forensic anthropology. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas Publisher.
133. Vlcek E. 1965. Die Sinus frontales bei Europaischen Neanderthalern. Anthropol Anz 28:166-189.
134. Wang R-G, Jiang S, Gu R. 1994. The cartilaginous nasal capsule and embryonic development of human paranasal sinuses. J Otolaryngol 23:239-243.
135. Ward SC, Brown B. 1986. The facial skeleton of Sivapithecus. In: Ciochon RL, Chiarelli AB, editors. Evolutionary biology of the New World monkeys and continental drift. New York: Plenum Press. p 413-452.
136. Wegner RN. 1958. Die Nebenhöhlen der Nase bei den Krokodilen. Wissensch Z Ernst Moritz Arndt Univ Greifswald 7:1-39.
137. Weidenreich F. 1924. Über die pneumatischen Nebenräume des Kopfes. Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis des Bauprintips des Knochens, des Schädels und des Körpers (Knochenstudien: III. Teil). Z Anat Entwickl Gesch 72:55-93.
138. Weidenreich F. 1941. The brain and its role in the phylogenetic transformation of the human skull. Am Phil Soc 31: 321-442.
139. Witmer LM. 1995a. Homology of facial structures in extanct archosaurs (birds and crocodilians), with special reference to paranasal pneumaticity and nasal conchae. J. Morphol 225:269-327.
140. Witmer LM. 1995b. The extant phylogenetic bracket and the importance of reconstructing soft tissues in fossils. In Thomason JJ, editor. Functional morphology in vertebrate paleontology. New York: Cambridge University Press. p 19-33.
141. Witmer LM. 1997a. The evolution of the antorbital cavity of Archosaurs: a study in soft-tissue reconstruction in the fossil record with an analysis of the function of pneumaticity. J Vert Paleontol 17(Suppl 1):1-65.
142. Witmer LM. 1997b. Bones, air sacs and natural selection: a new perspective on the function of pneumatic sinuses [abstract]. J Morphol 232.
143. Witmer LM. 1999. The phylogenetic history of the paranasal air sinuses. In: Koppe T, Nagai H, Alt KW, editors, The paranasal sinuses of higher primates. Berlin: Quintessence. p 21-34.
144. Zimmer C. 2004. Soul made flesh: the discovery of the brain - and how it changed the world. Free Press.
145. Zuckerkandl E. 1882. Normale und Pathologische Anatomie der Nasenhöhle und ihrere Pneumatischen Anhänge. Wien: Wilhelm Braumüller.
146. Zuckerkandl E. 1892. Normale und Pathologische Anatomie der Nasenhöhlen und ihrer Pneumatischen Anhänge. Wien und Leipzig: Wilhelm Braumüller.