The organization of the Atlantic slave trade in Yorubaland, ca.1777 to ca.1856

International Journal of African Historical Studies

Volumn 41, Issue 1, 2008, Pages 77-100

  Ojo, Olatunji ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 58149298864     PISSN: 03617882     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (169)

1. Samuel Johnson, The History of the Yorubas from the Earliest to the Beginning of the British Protectorate (1921; reprint, Lagos, Nigeria: CSS, 1976), 178-283
2. Saburi Biobaku, The Egba and Their Neighbours, 1842-1872 (London: Clarendon Press, 1957)
3. Bolanle Awe, "The Rise of Ibadan as Yoruba Power 1851-1893" (DPhil. diss., Oxford University, 1964)
4. J. F. Ajayi and Robert Smith, Yoruba Warfare in the Nineteenth Century (London: Cambridge University Press, 1964)
5. S. A. Akintoye, Revolution and Power Politics in Yorubaland, 1840-1893: Ibadan Expansion and the Rise of Ekitiparapo (London: Longman, 1971)
6. E. Adeniyi Oroge, "The Institution of Slavery in Yorubaland with Particular Reference to the Nineteenth Century" (Ph.D. thesis, Birmingham, 1971)
7. Robin Law, The Oyo Empire c. 1600-c. 1836: A West African Imperialism in the Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977), 245-302
8. Adeagbo Akinjogbin, ed., War and Peace in Yorubaland 1793-1893 (Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books, 1998)
9. Peter Morton-Williams, "The Oyo Yoruba and the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1670-1830," Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria (JHSN), 3, 1 (1964), 24-45
10. A. G. Hopkins, "Economic Imperialism in West Africa: Lagos, 1880-1892," Economic History Review (EHR), 21, 3 (1968), 580-606
11. Gabriel Olusanya, ed., Studies in Yoruba History and Culture: Essays in Honour of Professor S. O. Biobaku (Ibadan: University Press, 1983)
12. Toyin Falola, The Political Economy of a Pre-Colonial African State: Ibadan, 1830-1900 (Ile-Ife: University of Ife Press, 1984)
13. Falola, ed., Yoruba Historiography (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991)
14. Paul E. Lovejoy and David Trotman, eds., Trans-Atlantic Dimensions of Ethnicity in the African Diaspora (London: Continuum, 2003)
15. and Toyin Falola and Matt D. Childs, eds., The Yoruba Diaspora in the Atlantic World (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004)
16. See Allan F. C. Ryder, Benin and the Europeans 1485-1897 (London: Longman, 1969), 77-78, 130-33
17. Colin W. Newbury, "Credit in Early Nineteenth Century West African Trade," Journal of African History (JAH), 13, 1 (1972), 81-95
18. Philip D. Curtin, Economic Change in Precolonial Africa: Senegambia in the Era of the Slave Trade (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1975), vol. 1, 302-308
19. Adam Jones, From Slaves to Palm Kernels: A History of the Galinhas Country (West Africa), 1730-1890 (Wiesbaden: F. Steiner, 1983)
20. Joseph C. Miller, Way of Death: Merchant Capitalism and the Angolan Slave Trade, 1730-1830 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988)
21. Robin Law, The Slave Coast of West Africa, 1550-1750 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991)
22. Law, The English in West Africa: The Local Correspondence of the Royal African Company of England, 1681-1699, 3 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997-2007)
23. Law, Ouidah: The Social History of a West African Slaving "Port" 1727-1892 (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2004)
24. Paul Lovejoy and David Richardson, "Trust, Pawnship, and Atlantic History: The Institutional Foundations of the Old Calabar Slave Trade," American Historical Review 104, 2 (1999), 333-55
25. Lovejoy and Richardson, "Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa 1610-1800," JAH 42, 1 (2001), 74-75
26. and Lovejoy and Richardson, '"This Horrid Hole': Royal Authority, Commerce and Credit at Bonny, 1690-1840," JAH 45 (2004), 363-92
27. th Century (1968; reprint, Ibadan: Ibadan University Press, 1976)
28. Robert Smith, The Lagos Consulate, 1851-1861 (London: Macmillan, 1978)
29. Jean Kopytoff, A Preface to Modern Nigeria: The "Sierra Leonian" in Yoruba, 1830-1890 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965)
30. A.G. Hopkins, "Property Rights and Empire Building: Britain's Annexation of Lagos, 1861," Journal of Economic History (JEH), 40, 4 (1980), 777-98
31. Robin Law, 'Trade and Politics Behind the Slave Coast: The Lagoon Traffic and the Rise of Lagos, 1500-1800," JAH 24, 3 (1983), 343-18
32. Kristin Mann, Slavery and the Birth of an African City: Lagos 1760-1900 (Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2007)
33. and Caroline Sorensen-Gilmour, "Slave-Trading Along the Lagoons of South-West Nigeria: The Case of Badagry," in Robin Law and Silke Strickrodt, eds., Ports of the Slave Trade: Bights of Benin and Biafra (Stirling: Centre for Commonwealth Studies, University of Stirling, 1999), 70-84
34. Verger, Trade Relations, 399-404
35. John Adams, Remarks on the Country Extending from Cape Palmas to the River Congo (1823; reprint, London: Frank Cass, 1966), 96-105, 218-22
36. and Law, "Trade and Politics."
37. Paul Lovejoy, "The Clapperton-Bello Exchange: The Sokoto Jihad and the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade, 1804-1837," in Christopher Wise, ed., The Desert, Shore: Literatures of the African Sahel (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2000), 201-27
38. Robin Law, "The Dynastic Chronology of Lagos," Lagos Notes and Records 2 ( 1968), 46-54
39. Stephen D. Behrendt, "The Annual Volume and Regional Distribution of the British Slave Trade, 1780-1807," JAH, 38, 2 (1997), 205
40. and David Eltis, David Richardson, and Stephen Behrendt, The Atlantic Slave Trade: A New Census (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming)
41. cited in Eltis, "The Diaspora of Yoruba Speakers, 1650-1865: Dimensions and Implications," in Falola and Childs, eds., Yoruba Diaspora, 17-39
42. "CMS Slave Manumission Court, Ibadan: Case of Thomas Akidia, 16 Aug. 1883," CMS (Y) 2/2/3, Nigeria National Archives, Ibadan (hereafter NNAI)
43. See Bolanle Awe, "Militarism and Economic Development in Nineteenth Century Yoruba Country: The Ibadan Example," JAH 14, 1 (1973), 65-77
44. Patrick D. Cole, Modern and Traditional Elites in the Politics of Lagos (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), 24-31,56-58
45. and Ann O'Hear, "Political and Commercial Clientage in Nineteenth-Century," African Economic History (AEH) 15 (1986), 69-83
46. George Robertson, Notes on Africa (London: Sherwood, Neely, and Jones, 1819), 290-91
47. See Richard Bradbury, "The Kingdom of Benin," in Daryll Forde and P.M. Kaberry, eds., West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967), 6
48. Adams, Remarks, 96-97 and Robertson, Notes on Africa, 287
49. Peter Morton-Williams, "The Oyo Yoruba and the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1670-1830," JHSN 3, 1 (1964), 25-45
50. Law, Oyo Empire, 211-36
51. Mahdi Adamu, "The Delivery of Slaves from the Central Sudan to the Bight of Benin in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries," in Henry Gemery and Jan Hogendom, eds., The Uncommon Market: Essays in the Economic History of the Atlantic Slave Trade (New York: Academy Press, 1979), 163-80
52. and Paul Lovejoy, "The Central Sudan and the Atlantic Slave Trade," in Robert Harms, Joseph Miller, David Newbury, and Michelle Wagner, eds., Paths to the Past: African Historical Essays in Honor of Jan Vansina (Atlanta, Ga.: African Studies Association Press, 1994), 345-70
53. Samuel Crowther to William Jowett, CMS Secretary, Fourah Bay, Feb 22, 1937, "Detailing the Circumstances Connected with His Being Sold as a Slave," Church Missionary Record (CMR), 8 (October 1837), 217-23
54. See Hugh Clapperton, journal, 6 December 1825, in James B. Lockhart and Paul Lovejoy, eds., Hugh Clapperton into the Interior of Africa: Records of the Second Expedition 1825-1827 (Leiden: Brill, 2005)
55. Philip D. Curtin, ed., Africa Remembered: Narratives by West Africans from the Era of the Slave Trade (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967)
56. William Marsh, journal, 25 June 1845, CA2/067, CMS; Thomas King, journal, 7 April 1850, CA2/061, CMS
57. and William Moore "Arrival of the Caravan," in Mary Barber, Oshiele or Village Life in the Yoruba Country (London: James Nisbet, 1857), 45-55
58. "Governor of Bahia to Prince Regent, Rio de Janeiro," vol. 13, folios 540 and 544, Arquivo Público da Bahia (APB)
59. See Pierre Verger, "Notes on Some Documents in which Lagos is Referred to by the Name 'Onim' and which Mentions Relations Between Onim and Brazil," JHSN 1, 4 (1959), 348
60. Robertson, Notes on Africa, 288-90
61. On the "English and French Roads" and "Portuguese and Spanish Wards" of Lagos, see Edward Bold, The Merchants' and Mariners' African Guide (Salem, Mass.: Cushing and Appleton 1823), 67
62. and Samuel Crowther to Jowett, 22 February 1837, Church Missionary Record 8 (1837)
63. David Ross, "The First Chacha of Wyhdah: Francisco Felix de Souza," ODU 2 (1969), 19-28
64. and "The Career of Domingo Martinez in the Bight of Benin 1833-64," JAH 6, 1 (1965), 79-90
65. see also Law, Ouidah: A Social History
66. Henry Townsend to Coates, 4 June 1846, CA2/03, CMS; William Marsh, journal, 25 June 1846
67. and Marsh to Henry Venn, 13 April 1848, CA2/067, CMS
68. Richard Lander, Records of Captain Clapperton's Last Expedition to Africa (1830; reprint, London: Frank Cass, 1966), 2: 238-10
69. Lewis J. Jones to Bruce, 3 October 1851, CalProf 4/1, NNAI
70. see David Eltis, Stephen Behrendt, David Richardson, and Herbert Klein, The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Database on CD-Rom (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)
71. Bello to Kosoko, 27 December 1849
72. and Desonnais to Kosoko, 16 March 1850, Kosoko Letters, #22 and #28
73. Adam, Remarks, 102-103
74. and James Fawckner, Narrative of Captain James Fawckner's Travels on the Coast of Benin Edited by a Friend of the Captain (London: A. Schloss, 1837), 8-15
75. See Verger, "Notes on Onim," 344-46
76. Ubiratan Castro de Araujo, "1846, Um ano na Rota Bahia-Lagos: Negócios, Negociantes e Outros Parceiros," in Paul Lovejoy, ed., Identifying Enslaved Africans: The "Nigerian" Hinterland and the African Diaspora (Toronto: York University, 1997), 446-72. An ounce equaled c. 20,000 cowries in the eighteenth century, nearly £2 in 1805, and S14 1/2 in 1849
77. See E.W. Evans and David Richardson, "Hunting for Rents: The Economics of Slaving in Pre-Colonial Africa," EHR 48,4 (1995), 665
78. See Robin Law, "Finance and Credit in Pre-Colonial Dahomey," in Endre Stiansen and Jane I. Guyer, eds., Credit, Currencies and Culture: African Financial Institutions in Historical Perspective (Stockholm: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, 1999), 19-21
79. Herbert to James Macdonald, London, 15 August 1808, Chancery Master's Exhibits, C114/157, National Archives, UK (hereafter NAUK)
80. See Evans and Richardson, "Hunting for Rents," 665-66
81. Consul William Pennel to George Canning, Minister of Foreign Affairs, 16 November 1825 and 4 July 1827, FO 84/71, NAUK; and Smith Reffell, 27 Oct 1827, FO 84/66, NAUK
82. See Ross, "Career of Domingo Martinez"
83. Ponte to Visconde, 7 October 1807, APB, 143, f.102, 109,115
84. Fawckner, Narrative of Captain Fawckner, 13-55
85. Richard and John Lander, Journal of an Expedition to Explore the Course and Termination of the Niger (New York: J. & J. Harper, 1832), 1: 54-56
86. Godinho to Kosoko, 3 April 1849, and 13 July 1850
87. Dessonais to Kosoko, 28 August 1850, Kosoko Letters
88. and Campbell to Clarendon, 1 September 1857, FO 84/1031, NAUK
89. Iga Oshodi, The Epetedo Lands: Representations of the Oshodi Chieftaincy Family Submitted to the Commissioner, Lagos Land Inquiry (Lagos: Hope Rising Press, 1939)
90. On Saro/Aguda agents, see Kopytoff, Preface to Modern Nigeria
91. Edward Irving, "The Ijebu Country," Church Missionary Intelligencer (CMI), 7,4 (1856), 95
92. Lisa Lindsay, "To Return to the Bosom of their Fatherland: Brazilian Immigrants in NineteenthCentury Lagos," Slavery and Abolition 15, 1 (1994), 22-50
93. Colonia to Kosoko, 10 December 1849, Kosoko Letters
94. Lindsay, "Return to the Bosom of Their Fatherland"
95. and Lorand Matory, "The English Professors of Brazil: On the Diasporic Roots of the Yoruba Nation," Comparative Study in Society and History 41, 1 (1999), 72-103
96. Kosoko to Ignacio Pereira, 4 August 1850, Kosoko Letters
97. See Olatunji Ojo, "The Root Is Also Here: The Non-Diasporic Roots of Yoruba Ethnicity," in Toyin Falola, ed., Global Migrations (forthcoming)
98. Oladipo Yemitan, Madame Tinubu: Merchant and Kingmaker (Ibadan: University Press Ltd., 1987), 6-10
99. and Lander, Records of Clapperton, 2: 224. The Awujale (king) of Ijebu and some of his chiefs married Kosoko's daughters
100. Fawckner, Narrative, 23-25
101. G. Robertson, Notes on Africa, 288; and Townsend, journal, 2 January 1854, CA2/085, CMS
102. and Lander, Records of Clapperton, 2: 224
103. and William R. Bascom, "The Esusu: A Credit Institution of the Yoruba," Journal of Royal Anthropological Institute (JRAI), 82 (1952), 63-69
104. See Barber, Oshielle, 115-21
105. and Samuel Crowther to Thomas Hutchinson, 1O September 1856, CA2/031.CMS
106. and Kristin Mann, "Women, Landed Property, and the Accumulation of Wealth in Early Colonial Lagos," Signs 16, 4 (1991), 682-706
107. Lagos Colony Annual Report, 1901-02, 200
108. See Toyin Falola and Akanmu Adebayo, Culture, Politics, and Money Among the Yoruba (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 2000), 159-90
109. John Clemison (for Caboceer of Lagos) to Miles, 27 January 1777
110. See Thomas Hodgkin, ed., Nigerian Perspectives: An Historical Anthology, 2nd ed. (London: Oxford University Press, 1975), 225-26
111. Herbert to Macdonald, 15 August 1808, Chancery Master's Exhibits, CI14/157, NAUK
112. See Robert Smith, ed.. Memoirs of Giambattista Scala: Consul of His Italian Majesty in Lagos in Guinea, 1862
113. William McCoskry to Benjamin Campbell, 19 August 1855 in Campbell to Clarendon, 30 August 1855, FO 84/976, NAUK
114. Campbell to Alake, 4 April 1856, CSO 8/1/1, NNAI
115. and E. F. Lodder to Malmesbury, 30 May 1859, FO 2/28, NAUK
116. Campbell to Clarendon, 5 December 1854, FO 84/950, NAUK
117. African Times, Lagos, 23 April 1862
118. Campbell to Scala, Lagos, 25 October 1855, CSO, 8/1, NNAI
119. and Campbell to Clarendon, 26 March and 26 May 1856, FO 84/1002, NAUK
120. Gantois and Marback to Kosoko, 28 September 1849
121. D'Almeida to Kosoko, 17 April 1848
122. Kosoko to Godinho, 27 April 1849, Kosoko Letters #5
123. See Campbell to Clarendon, 3 October 1855, FO 84/976, NAUK
124. and Paul Lovejoy, "International Monetary Flows in the Precolonial Trade of Nigeria," JAH 15,4 (1974), 569-75
125. John D.Y. Peel, Religious Encounter and the Making of the Yoruba (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001)
126. The letters show Kosoko was repairing some "gun-barrels" in Brazil. On another occasion, an Ague (Togo) trader, offered to send two naval boats to quell an anti-Kosoko protest. See Teixera Cardoso to Kosoko, 15 September 1849
127. and Avoce to Kosoko, 21 September 1850, Kosoko Letters #13 and 44
128. and Gollmer to Arthur Fanshaw, 26 March 1851, in "Papers on the Destruction of Lagos," British Parliamentary Papers (hereafter BPP), 64 (1852), 221
129. Cando. Fz. Lima to Acheron, 30 April 1850
130. and Bello to Kosoko, 28 October and 21 November 1850, Kosoko Letters #31,45, and 47. Acheron probably refers to Asogbon or Basorun
131. Hinderer to Venn, 26 October 1855, CA2/049b, CMS
132. Jane Guyer, "Wealth in People, Wealth in Things," JAH 36, 1 (1995), 83-90
133. and Martin R. Delaney and Robert Campbell, Search for a Place: Black Separatism and Africa, 1860 (1861; reprint, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1969), 191
134. Enclosure in Lire to Kosoko, 1 February 1850, Kosoko Letters
135. Lander, Records of Captain Clapperton, 2: 240-45, 254-59
136. On African cult trade, see G.I. Jones, Trading States of the Oil Rivers (London: Oxford University Press, 1963), 142-43
137. A.J. Latham, Old Calabar, 1600-1891: The Impact of the International Economy upon a Traditional Society (London: Oxford University Press, 1978), 35-10
138. Ralph Austen, "Cult Organizations and Trading Networks in Non-Muslim West Africa" (paper read at the African Studies Association Meeting 1983)
139. K.O. Dike and Felicia Ekejiuba, The Aro of South-Eastern Nigeria, 1650-1980: A Study of Socio-Economic Formation and Transformation in Nigeria (Ibadan: University Press, 1990), 146
140. and Lovejoy and Richardson, "Trust, Pawnship," 347-52
141. Davies, "Testimony, 20 April 1898" in Denton to Chamberlain, 4 June 1898, CO 147/133, NAUK
142. On Davies see L. C. Gwam, "The Honourable Captain James Pinson Labulo Davies, 1828-1906," NNAI
143. Oroge, "Iwofa: An Historical Survey of the Yoruba Institution of Indenture" AEH 14 (1985), 75-107
144. and Peel, Religious Encounter, 59-63
145. Johnson, History, 126-30
146. Ajayi K. Ajisafe-Moore, The Laws and Customs of the Yoruba People (Abeokuta: Fola Bookshops, 1924), 63-66
147. Nathaniel Fadipe, The Sociology of the Yoruba (Ibadan: Ibadan University Press, 1970), 189-93
148. Isaac Delano, The Soul of Nigeria (London: Werner Laurier, 1937), 70-77
149. Oroge, "Iwofa"; Peel, Religious Encounter, 59-63
150. Francine Shields, "Palm Oil and Power: Women in an Era of Economic and Social Transition in Nineteenth Century Yorubaland" (Ph.D., Stirling, 1997), 106-108, 123-34
151. and Toyin Falola, "Slavery and Pawnship in the Yoruba Economy of the Nineteenth Century"
152. Falola, "Pawnship in Colonial Southwestern Nigeria"
153. Judith Byfield, "Pawns and Politics: the Pawnship Debate in Western Nigeria,"
154. and Ann O'Hear, "Pawning in IIorin Emirate,"
155. all in Paul E. Lovejoy and Toyin Falola, eds., Pawnship, Slavery and Colonialism in Africa (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2003), 109-65, 357-408
156. and Glover to Newcastle, 27 March 1873, CO 147/29, NAUK
157. Oroge, "Iwofa," 78. On currency fluctuations
158. see A.G. Hopkins, "The Currency Revolution in Southwest Nigeria in the Late Nineteenth Century," JHSN 3, 3, 1966, 476-83
159. Law, "Finance and Credit in Pre-Colonial Dahomey," 16
160. See Campbell to Clarendon, 23 July 1853, BPP, vol. 63, Class B #15
161. Fraser to Malmesbury, 20 February 1853, BPP, vol. 63, Class B #1 and enclosures 1-6
162. Robert H. Stone, In Africa's Forest and Jungle or Six Years Among the Yorubans (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1899), 123-24 and 248
163. Samuel Crowther, A Vocabulary of the Yoruba Language (London: Seeleys, 1852), 36
164. Alfred B. Ellis, The Yoruba-Speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West Africa (London: Chapman and Hall, 1894), 190
165. and Ajisafe, Laws and Customs, 62-68
166. Peter C. Lloyd, "Osifekunde of Ijebu," in Curtin, ed., Africa Remembered, 285-86
167. See "Instructions to the superintendent and council of the Sierra Leone Company settlement, 1791, para. 34" in L.E.C. Evans, ed., "An Early Constitution of Sierra Leone," Sierra Leone Studies 18 (1932), 26-77
168. Cf. John J. Crooks, Records Relating to the Gold Coast Settlements from 1750 to 1874 (London: Frank Cass, 1973 [1923]), 296-97
169. See William N.M. Geary, Nigeria Under British Rule (1927; reprint, London: Frank Cass, 1965), 35