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Volumn 34, Issue 2-3, 2008, Pages 257-277

Intellectual property and development at WHO and WIPO

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CONSENSUS; PATENT; PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT; PUBLIC HEALTH; WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION;

EID: 58149115502     PISSN: 00988588     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/009885880803400207     Document Type: Conference Paper
Times cited : (7)

References (195)
  • 1
    • 84868895281 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See generally World Intellectual Property Organization [WIPO
    • See generally World Intellectual Property Organization [WIPO], www.wipo.int.
  • 2
    • 61449183019 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • William New, WIPO Launches New Agenda On IP And Development, INTELL. PROP. WATCH, Sept. 29, 2007, www.ip-watch.org/weblog/ index.php?P=762.
    • William New, WIPO Launches New Agenda On IP And Development, INTELL. PROP. WATCH, Sept. 29, 2007, www.ip-watch.org/weblog/ index.php?P=762.
  • 3
    • 42149179454 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See generally World Health Organization [WHO], www.who.int.
    • See generally
  • 4
    • 61449148923 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Public Health, Innovation, Essential Health Research and Intellectual Property Rights: Towards a Global Strategy and Plan of Action, World Health Assembly Res. WHA59.24 3 (May 27, 2006), available at www.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/WHA59/A59_R24-en.pdf [hereinafter WHA, Public Health Innovation.
    • Public Health, Innovation, Essential Health Research and Intellectual Property Rights: Towards a Global Strategy and Plan of Action, World Health Assembly Res. WHA59.24 3 (May 27, 2006), available at www.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/WHA59/A59_R24-en.pdf [hereinafter WHA, Public Health Innovation.
  • 5
    • 61449230117 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For example, the World Trade Organization is engaged in an ongoing process of amending the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) to make it easier for developing countries to obtain less expensive, generic versions of patented medicines. The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, together with the International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development, is implementing a Capacity Building Project on Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) and Sustainable Development that conducts research designed to improve understanding of the implications of the TRIPS Agreement for developing countries and to strengthen the analytical and negotiating capacity of developing countries so that they are better able to participate in IPR-related negotiations in an informed fashion in furtherance of their sustainable development objectives
    • For example, the World Trade Organization is engaged in an ongoing process of amending the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights ("TRIPS") to make it easier for developing countries to obtain less expensive, generic versions of patented medicines. The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, together with the International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development, is implementing a Capacity Building Project on Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) and Sustainable Development that conducts research designed to improve understanding of the implications of the TRIPS Agreement for developing countries and to "strengthen the analytical and negotiating capacity of developing countries so that they are better able to participate in IPR-related negotiations in an informed fashion in furtherance of their sustainable development objectives."
  • 6
    • 61449180652 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Capacity Building Project on Intellectual Property Rights, www.iprsonline.orgunctadictsd/description.htm. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has launched a capacity building project designed help developing countries provide access to HIV/AIDS drugs in the context of the flexibilities and safeguards within TRIPS, through technical assistance and facilitation.
    • See Capacity Building Project on Intellectual Property Rights, www.iprsonline.orgunctadictsd/description.htm. The United Nations Development Programme ("UNDP") has launched a capacity building project designed help developing countries provide access to HIV/AIDS drugs in the context of the flexibilities and safeguards within TRIPS, through technical assistance and facilitation.
  • 8
    • 61449241206 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also Press Release, UNDP, Fostering Appropriate National Responses to Intellectual Property and Access to Medicine (Oct. 26, 2006), content.undp.org/go/newsroom/?categoryID=349428&lang=en.
    • see also Press Release, UNDP, Fostering Appropriate National Responses to Intellectual Property and Access to Medicine (Oct. 26, 2006), content.undp.org/go/newsroom/?categoryID=349428&lang=en.
  • 9
    • 61449198884 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • WIPO, Proposal by Argentina and Brazil for the Establishment of a Development Agenda for WIPO, WIPO Doc. WO/GA/31/11 (Aug. 7, 2004), available at www.wipo.int/documents/en/document/govbody/ wo_gb_ga/pdf/wo_ga_31_11.pdf [hereinafter WIPO, Proposal].
    • WIPO, Proposal by Argentina and Brazil for the Establishment of a Development Agenda for WIPO, WIPO Doc. WO/GA/31/11 (Aug. 7, 2004), available at www.wipo.int/documents/en/document/govbody/ wo_gb_ga/pdf/wo_ga_31_11.pdf [hereinafter WIPO, Proposal].
  • 10
    • 61449106107 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at II
    • Id. at II.
  • 11
    • 61449144901 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at V-VII
    • Id. at V-VII.
  • 12
    • 61449149911 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • WIPO, General Report Adopted by the Assemblies of the Member States of WIPO, 334, WIPO Doc. A/43/16 (Nov. 12, 2007), available at www.wipo.int/edocs/mdocs/govbody/en/a_43/a_43_16-main1.pdf [hereinafter WIPO, General Report].
    • WIPO, General Report Adopted by the Assemblies of the Member States of WIPO, 334, WIPO Doc. A/43/16 (Nov. 12, 2007), available at www.wipo.int/edocs/mdocs/govbody/en/a_43/a_43_16-main1.pdf [hereinafter WIPO, General Report].
  • 13
    • 61449097021 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id.
  • 14
    • 61449228733 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id.
  • 15
    • 61449219289 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. Annex A, 1-14.
    • Id. Annex A, 1-14.
  • 16
    • 61449266977 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 17
    • 61449085974 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. Annex A, 15-23.
    • Id. Annex A, 15-23.
  • 18
    • 61449151377 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 19
    • 61449152351 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. Annex A, 22.
    • Id. Annex A, 22.
  • 20
    • 61449181649 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. Annex A, 24-32.
    • Id. Annex A, 24-32.
  • 21
    • 61449251992 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See MICHEL KOSTECKI, INT'L CTR. FOR TRADE AND SUSTAINABLE DEV. (ICTSD), PROGRAMME ON IPRS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, ISSUE PAPER No. 12: INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: WHAT TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE TO REDRESS THE BALANCE IN FAVOUR OF DEVELOPING NATIONS? (2006).
    • See MICHEL KOSTECKI, INT'L CTR. FOR TRADE AND SUSTAINABLE DEV. (ICTSD), PROGRAMME ON IPRS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, ISSUE PAPER No. 12: INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: WHAT TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE TO REDRESS THE BALANCE IN FAVOUR OF DEVELOPING NATIONS? (2006).
  • 23
    • 61449261312 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. Annex A, 39-44.
    • Id. Annex A, 39-44.
  • 24
    • 61449227748 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 25
    • 61449259318 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 26
    • 61449113344 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Posting of Dr. Sisule Musungu, to Thoughts In Colours, available at thoughtsincolours.blogspot.com/2007/07/ wipo-development-agenda-as-dust.html (July 9, 2007, 01:10 EST).
    • Posting of Dr. Sisule Musungu, to Thoughts In Colours, available at thoughtsincolours.blogspot.com/2007/07/ wipo-development-agenda-as-dust.html (July 9, 2007, 01:10 EST).
  • 28
    • 61449254803 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note, however, that the WHO is mentioned in Proposal 40 of WIPO's General Report, which calls for intensified cooperation on IP issues with various UN agencies. WIPO, General Report, supra note 9, at 16 (To request WIPO to intensify its cooperation on IP related issues with United Nations agencies, according to Member States' orientation, in particular UNCTAD, UNEP, WHO, UNIDO, UNESCO and other relevant international organizations, especially the WTO in order to strengthen the coordination for maximum efficiency in undertaking development programs).
    • Note, however, that the WHO is mentioned in Proposal 40 of WIPO's General Report, which calls for intensified cooperation on IP issues with various UN agencies. WIPO, General Report, supra note 9, at 16 ("To request WIPO to intensify its cooperation on IP related issues with United Nations agencies, according to Member States' orientation, in particular UNCTAD, UNEP, WHO, UNIDO, UNESCO and other relevant international organizations, especially the WTO in order to strengthen the coordination for maximum efficiency in undertaking development programs").
  • 29
    • 61449105191 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Secretary-General, Intellectual Property Rights, Innovation, and Public Health, 3, delivered to the Fifty-Sixth World Health Assembly, U.N. Doc. A56/17 (May 12, 2003), available at www.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/WHA56/ea5617.pdf
    • The Secretary-General, Intellectual Property Rights, Innovation, and Public Health, 3, delivered to the Fifty-Sixth World Health Assembly, U.N. Doc. A56/17 (May 12, 2003), available at www.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/WHA56/ea5617.pdf
  • 30
    • 61449241205 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 31
    • 61449263308 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 23
    • Id. 23.
  • 32
    • 61449133553 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Intellectual Property Rights, Innovation, and Public Health, World Health Assembly Res. 56.27, at 2, U.N.Doc. WHA56/27 (May 28, 2003) [hereinafter WHA 56.27].
    • Intellectual Property Rights, Innovation, and Public Health, World Health Assembly Res. 56.27, at 2, U.N.Doc. WHA56/27 (May 28, 2003) [hereinafter WHA 56.27].
  • 33
    • 61449228732 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • WHO, Comm'n on Intellectual Prop. Rights, Innovation, & Pub. Health, Public Health, Innovation, and Intellectual Property Rights, at iii (Apr. 25, 2006), available at www.who.int/intellectualproperty/documents/thereport/ EnPublicHealthReport.pdf [hereinafter CIPIH Report].
    • WHO, Comm'n on Intellectual Prop. Rights, Innovation, & Pub. Health, Public Health, Innovation, and Intellectual Property Rights, at iii (Apr. 25, 2006), available at www.who.int/intellectualproperty/documents/thereport/ EnPublicHealthReport.pdf [hereinafter CIPIH Report].
  • 34
    • 61449116264 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 35
    • 61449206549 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id at x
    • Id at x.
  • 36
    • 61449187790 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. For a broad overview of CIPIH'S findings, see CIPIH, Frequently Asked Questions, www.who.int/intellectualproperty/documents/ thereport/questions/en/index.html (last visited Apr. 17, 2008) [hereinafter CIPIH, FAQ].
    • Id. For a broad overview of CIPIH'S findings, see CIPIH, Frequently Asked Questions, www.who.int/intellectualproperty/documents/ thereport/questions/en/index.html (last visited Apr. 17, 2008) [hereinafter CIPIH, FAQ].
  • 37
    • 61449179598 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. passim. The report's conclusions are summarized by CIPIH as follows: Intellectual property rights are a general incentive provided by governments to promote innovation in all fields. In respect of public health, they are embedded in a set of other incentives which influence the pattern of innovation. They need to be looked at as part of a bigger picture. In particular, because of the small and uncertain market demand for diagnostics, vaccines and medicines needed to address health problems mainly affecting developing countries, the incentive effect of intellectual property rights may be limited or non-existent. Because intellectual property rights may not be an effective incentive in this area, there is a need for other incentives and financial mechanisms to be put in place and for collaborative efforts between different stakeholders. Without access to the products of innovation, there can be no public health benefits. Defining the conditions by which products can be accesse
    • Id. passim. The report's conclusions are summarized by CIPIH as follows: Intellectual property rights are a general incentive provided by governments to promote innovation in all fields. In respect of public health, they are embedded in a set of other incentives which influence the pattern of innovation. They need to be looked at as part of a bigger picture. In particular, because of the small and uncertain market demand for diagnostics, vaccines and medicines needed to address health problems mainly affecting developing countries, the incentive effect of intellectual property rights may be limited or non-existent. Because intellectual property rights may not be an effective incentive in this area, there is a need for other incentives and financial mechanisms to be put in place and for collaborative efforts between different stakeholders. Without access to the products of innovation, there can be no public health benefits. Defining the conditions by which products can be accessed is therefore an important aspect of the report. There has been significant progress in recent years, in particular initiatives taken by different stakeholders to promote innovation in health-care products e.g. increased funding by foundations and the formation of public-private partnerships for product development. This momentum for change is welcome but is insufficient. More needs to be done. There are unsettled and debated issues in intellectual property for example the effectiveness of the recent amendment to TRIPS in increasing access to medicines in countries without manufacturing capacity, the impact of data exclusivity laws and the impact of intellectual property provisions in bilateral trade agreements. And there is a need to ensure enhanced financing on a sustainable basis of innovation and access and promote synergy between the different partners. Ultimately it is a responsibility that governments must accept if these objectives are to be achieved. It is appropriate that WHO should now take the lead in promoting a more sustainable and better-funded effort and addressing unresolved issues. WHO should accordingly develop a Global Plan of Action to secure enhanced and sustainable funding for developing and making accessible products to address diseases that disproportionately affect developing countries.
  • 38
    • 61449263307 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For example, Professors Carlos Correa and Pakdee Pothisiri suggested, among other things, that more attention should have been paid to what they called a drastic decline in the capacity of the pharmaceutical industry to innovate and called for additional analysis on the negative effects of TRIPS-plus provisions in free trade agreements. CIPIH Report, supra note 30, at 201. Trevor Jones questioned the report's connection between patents and pricing and disagreed with the report's call for further reform of the patent system, among other things.
    • For example, Professors Carlos Correa and Pakdee Pothisiri suggested, among other things, that more attention should have been paid to what they called a "drastic decline in the capacity of the pharmaceutical industry to innovate" and called for additional analysis on the negative effects of TRIPS-plus provisions in free trade agreements. CIPIH Report, supra note 30, at 201. Trevor Jones questioned the report's connection between patents and pricing and disagreed with the report's call for further reform of the patent system, among other things.
  • 39
    • 61449110455 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 202
    • Id. at 202.
  • 40
    • 61449258744 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 41
    • 61449108489 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 104 (proposal 4.1).
    • Id. at 104 (proposal 4.1).
  • 42
    • 61449236739 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 55 (proposal 2.10).
    • Id. at 55 (proposal 2.10).
  • 43
    • 61449139552 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 120 (proposals 4.13-4.15).
    • Id. at 120 (proposals 4.13-4.15).
  • 44
    • 61449141949 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g. Carlos M. Correa, Note on the CIPIH Report, Commentaries by Commissioners, CIPIH, www.who.int/intellectualproperty/ documents/thereport/CCcommentary.pdf (last visited June 1, 2008).
    • See, e.g. Carlos M. Correa, Note on the CIPIH Report, Commentaries by Commissioners, CIPIH, www.who.int/intellectualproperty/ documents/thereport/CCcommentary.pdf (last visited June 1, 2008).
  • 45
    • 61449238530 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 83-96
    • Id. at 83-96.
  • 46
    • 61449105154 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 89-90 (proposals 3.5 and 3.6).
    • Id. at 89-90 (proposals 3.5 and 3.6).
  • 47
    • 61449141995 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • CIPIH, FAQ, supra note 33
    • CIPIH, FAQ, supra note 33.
  • 48
    • 61449241204 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • World Health Assembly, Public Health Innovation, supra note 4
    • World Health Assembly, Public Health Innovation, supra note 4..
  • 49
    • 61449134520 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 51
    • 61449256808 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • WHO, Draft Global Strategy and Plan of Action on Public Health, Innovation and Intellectual Property: Progress to Date in Drafting Groups A and B, A/PHI/IGWG/2/Conf. Paper No. 1. Rev. I and Annex, Dec. 14, 2007, available at www.who.int/gb/phi/pdf/igwg2/ PHI_IGWG2_CP1Rev1-en.pdf [hereinafter December 14, 2007 Progress Report].
    • WHO, Draft Global Strategy and Plan of Action on Public Health, Innovation and Intellectual Property: Progress to Date in Drafting Groups A and B, A/PHI/IGWG/2/Conf. Paper No. 1. Rev. I and Annex, Dec. 14, 2007, available at www.who.int/gb/phi/pdf/igwg2/ PHI_IGWG2_CP1Rev1-en.pdf [hereinafter December 14, 2007 Progress Report].
  • 52
    • 61449125359 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 53
    • 61449088702 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 7
    • Id. 7.
  • 54
    • 61449257790 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 8, 9
    • Id. 8, 9.
  • 55
    • 61449154860 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 12
    • Id. 12.
  • 56
    • 61449223992 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 6
    • Id. 6.
  • 57
    • 61449237702 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 13
    • Id. 13.
  • 58
    • 61449162469 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 14 b. As specified by the Commission on Marcroeconomics and Health and discussed in the CIPIH Report, Type I diseases are incident in both rich and poor countries, with large numbers of vulnerable populations in each. Type II diseases are incident in both rich and poor countries, but with a substantial proportion of the cases in poor countries. Type III diseases are those that are overwhelmingly or exclusively incident in developing countries. Id. at n. 1.
    • Id. 14 b). As specified by the Commission on Marcroeconomics and Health and discussed in the CIPIH Report, Type I diseases are incident in both rich and poor countries, with large numbers of vulnerable populations in each. Type II diseases are incident in both rich and poor countries, but with a substantial proportion of the cases in poor countries. Type III diseases are those that are overwhelmingly or exclusively incident in developing countries. Id. at n. 1.
  • 59
    • 61449220424 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at n.1
    • Id. at n.1.
  • 60
    • 61449164296 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at n.1
    • Id. at n.1.
  • 61
    • 61449214580 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 14 e. This sub-paragraph corresponds with what is referred to later in the draft global strategy as Element 5.
    • Id. 14 e). This sub-paragraph corresponds with what is referred to later in the draft global strategy as Element 5.
  • 62
    • 61449100848 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 63
    • 61449110416 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 15-26. These twelve principles originated with a draft global strategy submitted in September 2007 by fourteen developing countries. WHO, Sub-regional Meeting Consensus Document: Draft Global Strategy on Public Health, Innovation and Intellectual Property submitted by Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, El Salvador, Honduras, Mexico, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay and Venezuela, A/ PHI/IGWG/2/2 Annex, Sept. 3-5 2007, available at www.who.int/phi/ public_hearings/second/regional_consultations/ Sub_regional_Consensus_Document.pdf
    • Id. 15-26. These twelve principles originated with a draft global strategy submitted in September 2007 by fourteen developing countries. WHO, Sub-regional Meeting Consensus Document: Draft Global Strategy on Public Health, Innovation and Intellectual Property submitted by Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, El Salvador, Honduras, Mexico, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay and Venezuela, A/ PHI/IGWG/2/2 Annex, Sept. 3-5 2007, available at www.who.int/phi/ public_hearings/second/regional_consultations/ Sub_regional_Consensus_Document.pdf
  • 65
    • 61449111359 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. 16
    • id. 16.
  • 66
    • 61449181647 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 17
    • Id. 17.
  • 67
    • 61449205542 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 20
    • Id. 20.
  • 68
    • 61449154831 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, Annex 1C, art. 8(1), Apr. 15, 1994,33 I.L.M. 81, available at www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/27-trips.pdf [hereinafter the TRIPS Agreement] (Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization).
    • Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, Annex 1C, art. 8(1), Apr. 15, 1994,33 I.L.M. 81, available at www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/27-trips.pdf [hereinafter the TRIPS Agreement] (Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization).
  • 70
    • 61449141465 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 18
    • Id. 18.
  • 71
    • 61449210252 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 27, 28
    • Id. 27, 28
  • 72
    • 61449123466 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 28 1.3
    • Id. 28 (1.3).
  • 73
    • 61449202285 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 29
    • Id. 29
  • 74
    • 61449160150 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 75
    • 61449086793 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 30
    • Id. 30.
  • 76
    • 61449102027 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 77
    • 61449267968 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 30(2.4)(d).
    • Id. 30(2.4)(d).
  • 78
    • 61449134521 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 30(2.4)(e).
    • Id. 30(2.4)(e).
  • 79
    • 61449154859 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 30(2.3)(c) (encourage further exploratory discussions on the utility of possible intruments [sic] or mechanisms for essential health and biomedical R&D, including inter alia, a essential health and biomedical R&D treaty).
    • Id. 30(2.3)(c) ("encourage further exploratory discussions on the utility of possible intruments [sic] or mechanisms for essential health and biomedical R&D, including inter alia, a essential health and biomedical R&D treaty").
  • 80
    • 61449239523 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 32(3.1)a
    • Id. 32(3.1)(a)
  • 81
    • 61449245923 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 32(3.2)a
    • Id. 32(3.2)(a)
  • 82
    • 61449105190 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 32(3.2)(b). Consensus has not been reached on this proposed action
    • Id. 32(3.2)(b). Consensus has not been reached on this proposed action. Id.
    • Id
  • 83
    • 61449172405 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 323.4
    • Id. 32(3.4).
  • 84
    • 61449165235 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 323.5
    • Id. 32(3.5).
  • 85
    • 61449250053 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 34
    • Id. 34.
  • 86
    • 61449204245 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 34(4.1)(a).
    • Id. 34(4.1)(a).
  • 87
    • 61449121485 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 34(4.1)(b). Consensus has not been reached on this proposed action
    • Id. 34(4.1)(b). Consensus has not been reached on this proposed action. Id.
    • Id
  • 88
    • 61449166211 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 34(4.1)(c).
    • Id. 34(4.1)(c).
  • 89
    • 61449214581 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 34(4.2)(c).
    • Id. 34(4.2)(c).
  • 90
    • 61449213350 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 34
    • Id. 34.
  • 91
    • 61449171456 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 344.3
    • Id. 34(4.3).
  • 92
    • 61449256845 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 34(4.3)(a).
    • Id. 34(4.3)(a).
  • 93
    • 61449119220 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 34(4.3)(b).
    • Id. 34(4.3)(b).
  • 94
    • 61449132573 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 34(4.3)(c).
    • Id. 34(4.3)(c).
  • 95
    • 61449155843 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 35-36
    • Id. 35-36.
  • 96
    • 61449227746 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 97
    • 61449163387 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 36(5.1)(b).
    • Id. 36(5.1)(b).
  • 98
    • 61449109487 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 36(5.1)(c) and (f), respectively.
    • Id. 36(5.1)(c) and (f), respectively.
  • 99
    • 61449144900 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 36(2.3)(f).
    • Id. 36(2.3)(f).
  • 100
    • 61449090893 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 37
    • Id. 37.
  • 101
    • 61449177277 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 386.1
    • Id. 38(6.1).
  • 102
    • 61449106106 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 386.2
    • Id. 38(6.2).
  • 103
    • 61449198883 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 39(6.2)(e).
    • Id. 39(6.2)(e).
  • 104
    • 61449193647 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 39(6.2)(g). The issue of linkage between regulatory authorities and intellectual property has been particularly controversial, and over the last few years such provisions have been agreed upon in several bilateral trade agreements with the United States. See, e.g., Frederick M. Abbott, The Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health and the Contradictory Trend in Bilateral and Regional Free Trade Agreements, Occasional Paper 14, Quaker United Nations Office (2004) (arguing that the rules set up by the Agreements are generally prohibitively complicated for individuals operating in the real world)
    • Id. 39(6.2)(g). The issue of "linkage" between regulatory authorities and intellectual property has been particularly controversial, and over the last few years such provisions have been agreed upon in several bilateral trade agreements with the United States. See, e.g., Frederick M. Abbott, The Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health and the Contradictory Trend in Bilateral and Regional Free Trade Agreements, Occasional Paper 14, Quaker United Nations Office (2004) (arguing that the rules set up by the Agreements are generally prohibitively complicated for individuals operating in the real world)
  • 105
    • 61449160573 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Rafael Pastor, The Impact of Free Trade Agreements on Intellectual Property Standards in a Post-TRIPS World n.48-52, bilaterals.org, April 4, 2006, www.bilaterals.org/article.php3?id_article=4311.
    • Rafael Pastor, The Impact of Free Trade Agreements on Intellectual Property Standards in a Post-TRIPS World n.48-52, bilaterals.org, April 4, 2006, www.bilaterals.org/article.php3?id_article=4311.
  • 107
    • 61449221412 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 39(6.3)(d).
    • Id. 39(6.3)(d).
  • 110
    • 61449130913 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 39(6.3)(e).
    • Id. 39(6.3)(e).
  • 111
    • 61449227747 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. [39(6.3)(a), (h), (i), 39(6.4).
    • Id. [39(6.3)(a), (h), (i), 39(6.4).
  • 112
    • 61449119221 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 39(6-3)(c).
    • Id. 39(6-3)(c).
  • 113
    • 61449250054 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 40-42
    • Id. 40-42.
  • 114
    • 61449129917 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 42(7.1)(a).
    • Id. 42(7.1)(a).
  • 115
    • 61449184992 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 427.3
    • Id. 42(7.3).
  • 116
    • 61449197147 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 43-44
    • Id. 43-44.
  • 117
    • 61449141996 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 43
    • Id. 43.
  • 118
    • 61449204246 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 26
    • Id. 26.
  • 119
    • 84868893598 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • WHO Board Sets Course On IP, Avian Flu, Tighter Publication Policy
    • See, Feb. 4
    • See William New, WHO Board Sets Course On IP, Avian Flu, Tighter Publication Policy, INTELL. PROP, WATCH, Feb. 4, 2008, www.ip-watch.org/weblog/index.php?p=909.
    • (2008) INTELL. PROP, WATCH
    • New, W.1
  • 121
    • 61449148922 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • U.N. World Intellectual Property Organization [WIPO], Assemblies of the Member States of WIPO, Forty-Third Series of Meetings, Report of the Provision Committee on Proposals Related to a WIPO Development Agenda (PCDA), Annex, 2, 3, Doc. A/43/13 Rev. (September 17, 2007) (prepared by the Secretariat) [hereinafter WIPO Development Agenda], available at www.wipo.int/edocs/mdoes/govbody/en/a_43/ a_43_13_rev.doc
    • U.N. World Intellectual Property Organization [WIPO], Assemblies of the Member States of WIPO, Forty-Third Series of Meetings, Report of the Provision Committee on Proposals Related to a WIPO Development Agenda (PCDA), Annex, 2, 3, Doc. A/43/13 Rev. (September 17, 2007) (prepared by the Secretariat) [hereinafter WIPO Development Agenda], available at www.wipo.int/edocs/mdoes/govbody/en/a_43/ a_43_13_rev.doc
  • 122
    • 61449154232 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • December 14, 2007 Progress Report, supra note 47, 42(7.2), 42(7.3).
    • December 14, 2007 Progress Report, supra note 47, 42(7.2), 42(7.3).
  • 123
    • 61449084048 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g, WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, 4
    • See, e.g., WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, 4
  • 124
    • 61449222313 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • December 14, 2007 Progress Report, supra note 47, 28(1.2), 30(2.1).
    • December 14, 2007 Progress Report, supra note 47, 28(1.2), 30(2.1).
  • 125
    • 61449184991 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g, WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, 7, 23, 32
    • See, e.g., WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, 7, 23, 32
  • 126
    • 61449185868 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • December 14, 2007 Progress Report, supra note 47, 36(5.3), 39(6.3).
    • December 14, 2007 Progress Report, supra note 47, 36(5.3), 39(6.3).
  • 127
    • 61449125360 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, at Cluster A: Technical Assistance and Capacity Building
    • See, e.g., WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, at Cluster A: Technical Assistance and Capacity Building
  • 128
    • 61449126658 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • December 14, 2007 Progress Report, supra note 47, at Element 3: Building and improving innovative capacity.
    • December 14, 2007 Progress Report, supra note 47, at Element 3: Building and improving innovative capacity.
  • 129
    • 61449226767 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g, WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, 8
    • See, e.g., WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, 8
  • 131
    • 61449140502 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g, WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, 114, 17
    • See, e.g., WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, 114, 17
  • 133
    • 61449196162 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, 28, 29, 31
    • See, e.g., WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, 28, 29, 31
  • 134
    • 61449131850 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • December 14, 2007 Progress Report, supra note 47, at Element 4: Transfer of technology.
    • December 14, 2007 Progress Report, supra note 47, at Element 4: Transfer of technology.
  • 135
    • 61449255772 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, 34, 35 (proposing studies on constraints to and impact of IP)
    • See, e.g., WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, 34, 35 (proposing studies on constraints to and impact of IP)
  • 136
    • 61449199813 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • December 14, 2007 Progress Report, supra note 47, 28(1.1) (proposing to map global R&D with a view to identifying gaps that disproportionately affect developing countries), and 42(7.1) (proposing task force to study financing mechanisms).
    • December 14, 2007 Progress Report, supra note 47, 28(1.1) (proposing to map global R&D with a view to identifying gaps that disproportionately affect developing countries), and 42(7.1) (proposing task force to study financing mechanisms).
  • 137
    • 61449219288 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, 133
    • WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, 133.
  • 138
    • 61449085973 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • December 14, 2007 Progress Report, supra note 47, at Element 8: Establishing monitoring and reporting systems.
    • December 14, 2007 Progress Report, supra note 47, at Element 8: Establishing monitoring and reporting systems.
  • 139
    • 61449175213 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 140
    • 61449256846 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, 39
    • WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, 39.
  • 142
    • 61449103975 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, at 18
    • WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, at 18.
  • 143
    • 61449097966 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g
    • See, e.g., id. at Proposals 30, 40
    • at Proposals , vol.30 , pp. 40
  • 144
    • 61449114225 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • December 14, 2007 Progress Report, supra note 47, at Proposed Actions 5.1, 5.2, 2.3, 8.2.
    • December 14, 2007 Progress Report, supra note 47, at Proposed Actions 5.1, 5.2, 2.3, 8.2.
  • 145
    • 61449263306 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, at Proposal 30.
    • WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, at Proposal 30.
  • 148
    • 61449122508 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 5.2a
    • Id. 5.2(a).
  • 149
    • 61449168321 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 2.3(f) (to be considered within Element 5).
    • Id. 2.3(f) (to be considered within Element 5).
  • 150
    • 61449102984 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 8.2b
    • Id. 8.2(b).
  • 151
    • 61449155844 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 5.3
    • Id. 5.3.
  • 152
    • 61449187789 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 154
    • 61449130912 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See generally James Love & Tim Hubbard, The Big Idea: Prizes to Stimulate R&D for New Medicines, 82 CHI.-KENT L. REV. 1519, 1550 (2007).
    • See generally James Love & Tim Hubbard, The Big Idea: Prizes to Stimulate R&D for New Medicines, 82 CHI.-KENT L. REV. 1519, 1550 (2007).
  • 155
    • 61449240491 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See discussion supra Parts II.A., II.B.
    • See discussion supra Parts II.A., II.B.
  • 156
    • 61449103976 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See generally WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116
    • See generally WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116
  • 158
    • 61449094161 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note the language of Cluster E of the Development Agenda: WIPO, note 9, Annex A
    • Note the language of Cluster E of the Development Agenda: WIPO, General Report, supra note 9, Annex A, 39-44.
    • General Report, supra , pp. 39-44
  • 159
    • 61449188490 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • During the last IGWG meeting, a United States-based NGO released a report analyzing organizations that submitted comments in advance of IGWG public hearings conducted earlier in 2007. The report showed that comments from groups with links to the pharmaceutical industry outnumbered those from independent groups by more than 2 to 1. See Essential Action, Pharmaceutical Links of NGOs Contributing to the World Health Organization's Second Public Hearing on Public Health, Innovation and Intellectual Property, Nov. 7, 2007, www.essentialaction.org/access/uploads/igwg.contributorlinks.rtf
    • During the last IGWG meeting, a United States-based NGO released a report analyzing organizations that submitted comments in advance of IGWG public hearings conducted earlier in 2007. The report showed that comments from groups with links to the pharmaceutical industry outnumbered those from independent groups by more than 2 to 1. See Essential Action, Pharmaceutical Links of NGOs Contributing to the World Health Organization's Second Public Hearing on Public Health, Innovation and Intellectual Property, Nov. 7, 2007, www.essentialaction.org/access/uploads/igwg.contributorlinks.rtf
  • 160
    • 61449118219 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also William New, Report Finds Significant Industry Affiliation in IGWG 'NGO' Comments, INTELL. PROP. WATCH, Nov. 8, 2007, lists.essential.org/pipermail/ip-health/2007-November/ thread.html beginning with lists.essential.org/pipermail/ip-health/ 2007-November/011884.html.
    • see also William New, Report Finds Significant Industry Affiliation in IGWG 'NGO' Comments, INTELL. PROP. WATCH, Nov. 8, 2007, lists.essential.org/pipermail/ip-health/2007-November/ thread.html beginning with lists.essential.org/pipermail/ip-health/ 2007-November/011884.html.
  • 161
    • 84868898619 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See List of Experts and Concerned Entities for the Intergovernmental Working Group on Public Health, Innovation and Intellectual Property, www.who.int/gb/phi/pdf/igwg2/listofexpert-en.pdf (last visited Apr. 26, 2008). The concerned public and private entities permitted to attend were: The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation; Biotechnology Industry Organization (BIO); Directorate of Science, Technology and Industry, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD); Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi); Global Forum for Health Research; Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF); Access to Essential Medicines Campaign; and Facilité Internationale d'Achat de Médicaments (UNITAID). Id.
    • See List of Experts and Concerned Entities for the Intergovernmental Working Group on Public Health, Innovation and Intellectual Property, www.who.int/gb/phi/pdf/igwg2/listofexpert-en.pdf (last visited Apr. 26, 2008). The "concerned public and private entities" permitted to attend were: The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation; Biotechnology Industry Organization (BIO); Directorate of Science, Technology and Industry, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD); Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi); Global Forum for Health Research; Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF); Access to Essential Medicines Campaign; and Facilité Internationale d'Achat de Médicaments (UNITAID). Id.
  • 162
    • 61449095137 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Essential Action, supra note 144
    • See Essential Action, supra note 144.
  • 163
    • 61449136295 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, at 31
    • WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, at 31.
  • 164
    • 61449216455 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 28
    • Id. at 28.
  • 165
    • 61449234776 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 16-21.
    • See id. at 16-21.
  • 166
    • 84868895283 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See TENU AVAFIA ET AL., THE ABILITY OF SELECT SUB-SAHARA AFRICAN COUNTRIES TO UTILISE TRIPS FLEXIBILITIES AND COMPETITION LAW TO ENSURE A SUSTAINABLE SUPPLY OF ESSENTIAL MEDICINES: A STUDY OF PRODUCING AND IMPORTING COUNTRIES § 1 (2006), www.iprsonline.org/ unctadictsd/docs/Trade%20and%20Competition%2030%203%2006%2Ofinal%20 Editl%20_2_%20-2-.pdf
    • See TENU AVAFIA ET AL., THE ABILITY OF SELECT SUB-SAHARA AFRICAN COUNTRIES TO UTILISE TRIPS FLEXIBILITIES AND COMPETITION LAW TO ENSURE A SUSTAINABLE SUPPLY OF ESSENTIAL MEDICINES: A STUDY OF PRODUCING AND IMPORTING COUNTRIES § 1 (2006), www.iprsonline.org/ unctadictsd/docs/Trade%20and%20Competition%2030%203%2006%2Ofinal%20 Editl%20_2_%20-2-.pdf
  • 167
    • 61449237700 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • William New, supra note 2
    • William New, supra note 2
  • 169
    • 61449222274 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A recent ICTSD project illustrates the challenges facing developing country governments in setting IP policy. The ICTSD recently developed a Diagnostic Toolkit to aid the assessment of needs for IP technical and financial assistance in least-developed countries. See MART LEESTI & TOM PENGELLY, TECHNICAL AND FINANCIAL CO-OPERATION NEEDS FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF THE WTO TRIPS AGREEMENT IN SIERRA LEONE: FINAL REPORT OF NEEDS ASSESSMENT ix 2007, www.iprsonline.org/ictsd/docs/ Sierra_Leone%20final%20report%20with%20logos%20November%202007.pdf. This document outlines several steps necessary merely to assess a country's priority needs for technical and financial assistance, which include assessment of: The national development context; existing IP policy and legal framework; existing arrangements for IP administration; existing arrangements for IP enforcement and regulation; and existing arrangements for promoting use of the IP system for development and promoting innovatio
    • A recent ICTSD project illustrates the challenges facing developing country governments in setting IP policy. The ICTSD recently developed a Diagnostic Toolkit to aid the assessment of needs for IP technical and financial assistance in least-developed countries. See MART LEESTI & TOM PENGELLY, TECHNICAL AND FINANCIAL CO-OPERATION NEEDS FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF THE WTO TRIPS AGREEMENT IN SIERRA LEONE: FINAL REPORT OF NEEDS ASSESSMENT ix (2007), www.iprsonline.org/ictsd/docs/ Sierra_Leone%20final%20report%20with%20logos%20November%202007.pdf. This document outlines several steps necessary merely to assess a country's priority needs for technical and financial assistance, which include assessment of: The national development context; existing IP policy and legal framework; existing arrangements for IP administration; existing arrangements for IP enforcement and regulation; and existing arrangements for promoting use of the IP system for development and promoting innovation, technology transfer, and creativity. Id.
  • 170
    • 61449240490 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See generally Peter Drahos, Developing Countries and International Intellectual Property Standard-Setting, 5 J. WORLD INTELL. PROP. 765 (2002).
    • See generally Peter Drahos, Developing Countries and International Intellectual Property Standard-Setting, 5 J. WORLD INTELL. PROP. 765 (2002).
  • 171
    • 61449170518 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, 35
    • WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, 35.
  • 172
    • 61449190159 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • KOSTECKI, supra note 18, at vii
    • KOSTECKI, supra note 18, at vii
  • 173
    • 61449203244 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • LEESTI & PENGELLY, supra note 151, at ix
    • LEESTI & PENGELLY, supra note 151, at ix.
  • 174
    • 61449214582 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See discussion supra Part II A-B.
    • See discussion supra Part II A-B.
  • 176
    • 61449245924 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, at Cluster A Proposal 1.
    • WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, at Cluster A Proposal 1.
  • 177
    • 61449199814 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at Proposals 1-14.
    • Id. at Proposals 1-14.
  • 178
    • 61449129916 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at Proposal 6.
    • Id. at Proposal 6.
  • 179
    • 61449251991 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at Proposal 9.
    • Id. at Proposal 9.
  • 180
    • 61449186823 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See KOSTECKI, supra note 18, at ix
    • See KOSTECKI, supra note 18, at ix.
  • 181
    • 84868898620 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • December 14, 2007 Progress Report, supra note 47, at § 11(2.1).
    • December 14, 2007 Progress Report, supra note 47, at § 11(2.1).
  • 182
    • 84868898616 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at § 13 (3.1)-(3.2).
    • Id. at § 13 (3.1)-(3.2).
  • 183
    • 84868902883 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at § 17(5.1)(a).
    • Id. at § 17(5.1)(a).
  • 184
    • 84868908498 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at § 17(5.2).
    • Id. at § 17(5.2).
  • 185
    • 61449123465 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, at Proposal 1.
    • WIPO Development Agenda, supra note 116, at Proposal 1.
  • 186
    • 84868898618 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • E-mail from James Love to Senate Finance Committee Nov. 2
    • E-mail from James Love to Senate Finance Committee (Nov. 2, 2007), lists.essential.org/pipermail/ip-health/2007-November/011872.html.
    • (2007)
  • 187
    • 61449099884 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See also William New, WHO Session On IP And Health Clashes On Vision, Practicalities, INTELL. PROP. WATCH, Nov. 9, 2007, www.ip-watch.org/weblog/index.php?p=818
    • See also William New, WHO Session On IP And Health Clashes On Vision, Practicalities, INTELL. PROP. WATCH, Nov. 9, 2007, www.ip-watch.org/weblog/index.php?p=818
  • 188
    • 61449221413 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Tove Iren S. Gerhardsen, US Advises Developing Country FTA Partners Not To Follow WHO Plan, INTELL. PROP. WATCH, Dec. 11, 2006, www.ip-watch.org/weblog/index.php?p=485.
    • Tove Iren S. Gerhardsen, US Advises Developing Country FTA Partners Not To Follow WHO Plan, INTELL. PROP. WATCH, Dec. 11, 2006, www.ip-watch.org/weblog/index.php?p=485.
  • 189
    • 58149118418 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • As Professor Outterson discusses in his article in this Symposium, the United States presented similar, highly technical arguments in earlier Comments to the IGWG. See Kevin Outterson, Should Access to Medicines And TRIPS Flexibilities Be Limited To Specific Diseases? 34 AM. J.L. & MED. 279 (2008).
    • As Professor Outterson discusses in his article in this Symposium, the United States presented similar, highly technical arguments in earlier Comments to the IGWG. See Kevin Outterson, Should Access to Medicines And TRIPS Flexibilities Be Limited To Specific Diseases? 34 AM. J.L. & MED. 279 (2008).
  • 190
    • 61449260590 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • CONST. WORLD HEALTH ORG. art. 1 (The objective of WHO shall be the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level of health.), available at www.who.int/governance/eb/ who_constitution_en.pdf
    • CONST. WORLD HEALTH ORG. art. 1 ("The objective of WHO shall be the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level of health."), available at www.who.int/governance/eb/ who_constitution_en.pdf
  • 191
    • 84868902755 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • WHO website, last visited Apr. 27
    • see also WHO website, www.who.int (last visited Apr. 27, 2008).
    • (2008) see also
  • 192
    • 61449261311 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • December 14, 2007 Progress Report, supra note 47, at Annex 15.
    • December 14, 2007 Progress Report, supra note 47, at Annex 15.
  • 193
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    • The Regime Complex for Plant Genetic Resources, 58
    • See
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