Between ethnicity and modernity: Taiwanese medical students and doctors under Japan's kōminka campaign, 1937-1945

Positions

Volumn 10, Issue 2, 2002, Pages 285-332

  Lo, Ming Cheng M ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 58049213269     PISSN: 10679847     EISSN: 15278271     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1215/10679847-10-2-285     Document Type: Article

References (92)

1. Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985)
2. Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s (New York: Routledge, 1994)
3. Ann Stoler, "Sexual Affronts and Racial Frontiers: European Identities and the Cultural Politics of Exclusion in Colonial Southeast Asia," Comparative Studies of Society and History 34 (July 1992): 514-551
4. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, "Rethinking Racism: Toward a Structural Interpretation," American Sociological Review 62 (June 1996): 465-480
5. James F. Davis, Who Is Black? One Nation's Definition (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1991)
6. Ruth Frankenberg, White Women, Race Matters: The Social Construction of Whiteness (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993)
7. Frankenberg, White Women, Race Matters
8. Tani E. Barlow, ed., Formations of Colonial Modernity in East Asia (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1997)
9. See also Leo Ching, "Yellow Skin, White Masks," in Trajectories: Inter-Asia Cultural Studies, ed. Kuan-Hsing Chen (London: Routledge, 1998), 65-86. Chmg explains that "unlike the European encounter with its racial Others, this absence or invisibility of otherness posits a moment where a deferral between seeing and knowing, perceiving and conceiving is enacted, an instant where difference would be suspended and displaced if silence was kept" (65)
10. Alan S. Christy, "The Making of Imperial Subjects in Okinawa," in Barlow, Formations of Colonial Modernity, 141-170
11. Eiko Tai, "Kokugoand Colonial Education in Taiwan," positions 7 (fall 1999): 503-504
12. Mark R. Peattie, introduction to The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895-1945, ed. Ramon H. Myers and Mark R. Peattie (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), 3-52
13. Marius Jansen, "Japanese Imperialism: Late Meiji Perspectives," in Myers and Peattie, Japanese Colonial Empire, 61-79
14. Jansen, "Japanese Imperialism," 76
15. N. Shimazu, "The Japanese Attempt to Secure Racial Equality in 1919," Japan Forum 1, no. 1 (1989): 93-100
16. Michael Weiner, ed., Japan's Minorities: The Illusion of Homogeneity (New York: Routledge, 1997), 13-14
17. For example, see Wan-yao Chou, Jih-chu shih-tai ti T'ai-wan I-hut she-chih ch'ing-yuan yuniting (Taipei: Tzu-li pao-hsi wen-hua ch'u-pan-pu, 1989)
18. Pei-huo Tsai et al., T'ai-wan min tsu yun tung shih, 3d ed. (Taipei: Tzu li wan pao she, 1983)
19. Tadao Yanaihara, Teikoku shugi ka no Taiwan (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1929)
20. Masahiro Wakabayashi, Taiwan kōnichi undōshi kenkyū (Tokyo: Kenbun shuppan, 1983)
21. Christy, "Making of Imperial Subjects in Okinawa."
22. Kathleen Conzen, David Gerber, Ewa Morawska, George Pozzella, and Rudolph Vecoli, "Invention of Ethnicity: A Perspective from the U.S.A.," Journal of American Ethnic History 12, no. 1 (fall 1992): 3-41
23. See Hechter, Internal Colonialism: The Celtic Fringe in British National Development, 1536-1966 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975)
24. see also Michael Hechter and Margaret Levi, "The Comparative Analysis of Ethnoregional Movements," Ethnic and Racial Studies 2, no. 3 (1979): 260-274. But the economic explanation becomes more implicit and inadequate in situations where ethnic and economic boundaries differ. Barth contemplates the potential consequences of the participation of ethnic minorities in the "larger system of the industrialized group" (introduction, 28) and reasons that the group will probably be assimilated in the long run. This argument implies that the ethnic "cultural differentiae," as he calls them, are transformable by economic experiences. But unfortunately Barth does not elaborate on the transformation
25. Yen L. Espiritu, Asian American Panethnicity: Bridging Institutions and Identities (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992), provides a good example that illustrates the constructionist perspective. This study demonstrates how a pan-Asian identity is being produced in the increasing interactions among various Asian groups. Thus, the label of "Asian Americans," which was initially a misnomer imposed on them by the mainstream society, became a meaningful ethnic identity in the context of new and increasing social and political interactions
26. See also Dorinne K. Kondo, Crafting Selves: Power, Gender, and Discourse of Identity in a Japanese Workplace (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990)
27. Espintu, Asian American Women and Men: Labor, Laws, and Love (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1997)
28. David Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985)
29. Lisa Lowe, Immigrant Acts: On Asian American Cultural Politics (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1996)
30. Susan Olzak, "Ethnicity and Ethnic Collective Behavior," in Research in Social Movements, Conflict, and Change, ed. Louis Kriesberg (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1985), 65-85
31. Stephen Cornell, "The Variable Ties That Bind: Content and Circumstance in Ethnic Processes," Ethnic and Racial Studies 19, no. 2 (April 1996): 265-289
32. Cornell proposes a typology of group attachments, suggesting that the content of collective identity vanes along three dimensions: shared interests, institutions, and culture. He argues that the content of those identities mediates the effect of circumstances on ethnic communities. Group attachments based largely on shared interests, for example, tend to be more subject to the impact of circumstantial change, other things equal, than group attachments based on shared culture. See also Cornell, "Land, Labour, and Group Formation: Blacks and Indians in the United States," Ethnic and Racial Studies 19, no. 3 (July 1990): 368-388
33. Stoler, "Sexual Affronts and Racial Frontiers," 514-551
34. Davis, Who Is Black?
35. See Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993). It is in this latter tradition that I position my engagement with the concept of ethnic hybridity. Hybridity, then, signifies the encounter, conflict, and/or blending of two ethnic or cultural categories that, while by no means pure and distinct in nature, tend to be understood and experienced as meaningful identity labels by members of these categories
36. My conceptualization of the role of human agency is primarily informed by William Sewell's work on the structure-agency interactions. Drawing on the ideas of Anthony Giddens, Pierre Bourdieu, and others, Sewell's argument can be summarized in three main points: (a) Multiple structures intersect with one another; (b) resources are subject to different interpretation and use; and (c) human agency can transform and be transformed by structural forces. See William H. Sewell Jr., "A Theory of Structure: Duality, Agency, and Transformation," American Journal of Sociology 98, no. 1 (July 1992): 1-29
37. Peattie, introduction; Jennifer Robertson, "Mon Japon: The Revue Theater As a Technology of Japanese Imperialism," American Ethnologist 22 (November 1995): 970-997
38. Patricia Tsurumi, "Colonial Education in Korea and Taiwan," in Myers and Peattie, Japanese Colonial Empire, 275-311
39. Robertson, "Mon Japon," 972
40. For a detailed discussion of the tensions and ambiguities in Japan's assimilation policy see also Eiji Oguma, "Nihonpn" no kyōkai: Okinawa, Ainu, Taiwan, Chosen, shokuminchi shihai kara fukki undo made (Tokyo: Shmyōsha, 1998)
41. Wan-yao Chou, "The Kōminka Movement in Taiwan and Korea: Comparisons and Interpretations," in The Japanese Wartime Empire, 1931-1945, ed. Peter Duus, Ramon H. Myers, and Mark R. Peattie (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 42
42. Kōminka literanly means "impenalization" (of colonial subjects). For a comparison of the different effects of the kōminka movements in Taiwan and Korea, see Wan-yao Chou, "Kōminka Movement in Taiwan and Korea."
43. Lenore Manderson, Sickness and the State: Health and Illness in Colonial Malaya, 1870-1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996)
44. Ming-cheng Lo, "From National Physicians to Medical Modernists: Taiwanese Doctors under Japanese Rule" (Ph.D. diss.. University of Michigan, 1996)
45. Kaoru Morishita, "Nanpōken kōsei seisaku no kōsō," Taiwan jihō, March 1942, 42-54
46. See Taiheiyō kyōkai, Nonpō igaku ronsō (Tokyo: Taiheiyō kyōkai, 1942)
47. For a detailed discussion of Japan's "southward advancement" see "Part III: Japan's Wartime Empire and Southeast Asia," in Duus, Myers, and Peattie, Japanese Wartime Empire
48. Dr. Li, a Taiwanese physician and scholar of medical history, provides a detailed discussion of the regulation of medical practitioners during this period. See T'eng-yueh Li, "Shih-chieh ti-erh-ts'u chan-cheng-chung jih-pen cheng-fu tui-yü T'ai-wan chih i-yao kuan-li shih-shih kai-yao," T'ai -wan sheng wen -hsien wei- yuan -hui chuun-k'an, no. 1 (August 1949): 32-39
49. LIFE-F. For similar examples see also T'ien-yu Lin, Hsiang-ya-chih-t'a ch'un-ch'iu-chi (Taipei: T'ai-wan Shang-wu-yin-shu-kuan, 1983)
50. Yen-ch'ing Lin, "Kung-hsüch" (unpublished manuscript)
51. Public health conditions in Taiwan actually regressed during the war because most Taiwanese medical resources were channeled to the front. See Chen-jing Hsieh, "Jih-pen chih-min-chui hsia T'ai-wan wei-sheng cheng-ts'e chih yen-chiu" (Master's thesis, Chung-kuo Wen-hua Ta-hsüeh Jih-pen Yen-chiu so, 1989). While the Taiwanese public had difficulty accessing good medical service during this time, according to my informants this did not seem to affect the upward mobility of Taiwanese medical doctors and students until the last year of war
52. T'ien-yu Lin, Hsiang-ya-chih-t'a ch'un-ch'iu-chi, 4
53. Jun Shozawa, "Kikitori chōsa: Gaichi no shingaku taiken (II): Taihoku Isshi fukushō, Taihoku kōkō, Taihoku tcidai igakubu o hete, T'ai-wan daigaku igakuin sotsugyō," Gunma daigaku kyōiku gakubu kiyō jinbun shakaikagaku hen 44 (1995): 139-187
54. Yen-ch'ing Lin, '"Kung-hsüeh."
55. LIFE-H. For more examples see "I jen chuan lan", a series of interviews with older physicians, in Taiwan Medical Journal, vols. 23-29 (1980)
56. Janet Hart, New Voices in the Nation: Women and the Greeks Resistance, 1941-1964, (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996), 35. Hart's study is based on the Greek Resistance in the same period
57. T'ien-yu Lin, Hstang-ya-chih-t'a ch'un-ch'iu-chi, 22, 29
58. LIFE-C; LIFE-W; T'ien-yu Lin, Hsiang-ya-chih-t'a ch'un-ch'iu-chi
59. Tsung-mmg Tu, "Taiwan ni okeru iji eisei no konjaku," Taiwan sōtokufu rinji jōhōbu buhō, June 1940, 26-30
60. Kuo-chi Wu, "Ning-wei-ch'i-shou pu-wei-niu-ho," Taiwan Medical Journal 21 (1978): 53-55
61. Oto Mori, "Suna ni kakareta kiroku," in Chichi toshite no Mori Ohgai (1969; rpt., Tokyo: Chikuma shobō, 1993), 323-427
62. Toshio Oda, Igakusha nansenhokuba: Daigaku kyōju 40 nen no kaisō (Osaka: Rokugatsu-sha, 1964), 130
63. Shozawa, "Kikitori chōsa: Gaichi no shingaku taiken (III)."
64. LIFE-W. See also LIFE-C; Shozawa, "Kikitori chōsa: Gaichi no shingaku taiken (III)."
65. For example, see the section "Experiences of Studying in Japan" in Huo-yao Wei, Wei Huo-yao hsien sheng fang wen chi lu, interview by Ping-Chen Hsiung and Tung-liang Chiang, recorded by Li-jung Cheng (Taipei: Institute of Modern History, Acadernia Sinica, 1990), 9-14
66. Shozawa, "Kikitori chōsa: Gaichi no shingaku taiken (III)," 153
67. Shozawa, "Kikiton chōsa: Gaichi no shingaku taiken (II)," 179
68. Han Shih-ch'üan, Liu-shih hut-i (Tainan: Han shih-ch'üan hsien sheng shih shih san chou nien chi men chu an chi pien yin wie yüan hui, 1966), 57-58
69. For a discussion on the role of Japanese philanthropic hospitals in China see Lo, "From National Physicians to Medical Modernists," esp. 122-123
70. For excellent case studies of these hospitals see Takashi Nakamura, "Hsia-men oyobi Fu-chou hakuaikai iin no seintsu - Taiwan sōtokufu no taika bunka kōsaku," Nanpō bunka 15 (1988): 1-40
71. Nakamura, "Shan-to hakuaikai un no seintsu," Tenri University Journal 162 (1989): 15-28
72. Nakamura, "Kuangtung hakuaikai iin o meguru shornondai - Taiwan sōtokufu no taika bunka kōsaku (1)," Tenrt University Journal 165 (1990): 25-49
73. Nakamura, "Kuang-tung hakuaikai iin o meguru shornondai - Taiwan sōtokufu no taika bunka kōsaku (2)", Tenri University Journal 166 (1991): 1-24
74. Toshio Oda, Taiwan igaku 50 nen shi (Tokyo: Kabushiki kaisha igaku shoin, 1974), 120
75. Tu, Tu Tsung-ming hui-i-lu, 106-107
76. Chin-Ian Liang and Yü-ming Liang, "Liang Chin-lan, Liang Yü-ming chieh-ti fang-wen chi-lu," interviewed by Hsüeh-chi Shu, recorded by Shuo-li Tsai, K'ou-shu li-shih [Oral history] 5 (1994): 307-319
77. Recent studies point out that the Faculty of Medicine at Kyoto Imperial University in particular provided much support for the Kwantung Army's medical experiments. See Katsumi Nakao, "Shokuminchi shugi to Nihon minzokugaku," Chūkoku: Shakai to bunka 8 (June 1993): 231-242
78. Ching-yin Chou, "Fang Wei Ping-yen po-shih," Taiwan Medical Journal 27, no. 2 (1984): 57-60
79. P'ing-cheng Wu, T'at-p'ing-yang chan-cheng chun-i jih-chi (Taipei: Tzu li wan pao, 1989), 14
80. Wan-yao Chou, The "Kōminka" Movement: Taiwan under Wartime Japan, 1937-1945 (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1991), 224
81. Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture (New York: Routledge, 1994)
82. Jun Shozawa, "Woti fang-t'anchu t'i chi ching-yen: Jih-chih-shih-tai T'ai-wan-jen ti 'tzu-wo su-tsao-shih,'" trans. Huang Shou-heng, K'oushu li-hsih 6 (1995): 234
83. Louise Young, Japan's Total Empire; Manchuria and the Culture of Wartime Imperialism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998)
84. Douglas Reynolds, "Training Young China Hands: Tōa Dōbun Shoin and Its Precursors, 1886-1945," in The Japanese Informal Empire in China, 1895-1937, ed, Peter Duus, Ramon H. Myers, and Mark R. Peattie (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), 210-271
85. Barlow, Formations of Colonial Modernity
86. Gilroy, Black Atlantic
87. See also Lisa Rofel, Other Modernities: Gendered Yearnings in China after Socialism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999)
88. For a concise discussion of Du Bois's idea of double consciousness, see Dickson D. Bruce Jr., "W. E. B. Du Bois and the Idea of Double Consciousness," American Literature 64, no. 2 (June 1992): 290-309
89. BhaBha, Location of Culture
90. Cornell, "Variable Ties That Bind."
91. Joane Nagel, "Constructing Ethnicity: Creating and Recreating Ethnic Identity and Culture," Social Problems 41, no. 1 (February 1994): 161; my emphasis
92. Ann Swidler, "Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies," American Sociological Review 51 (1986): 273-286