Russia's northern fleet and the oil idustryg "rivals or partners?: Petroleum, security, and civilg "military relations in the postg "cold war european arctic

Armed Forces and Society

Volumn 35, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 362-384

  Åtland, Kristian ^a,b  

^a NORWEGIAN DEFENCE RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT FFI   (Norway)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Arctic; Civilg "military relations; Desecuritization; Northern Fleet; Russia

Indexed keywords

EID: 57949084291     PISSN: 0095327X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0095327X08316151     Document Type: Article

References (93)

1. The European Arctic is the part of European Russia that is located north of the Arctic Circle. Russians often distinguish between the "Western" and the "Eastern" Arctic. The former term refers to the European part of Arctic Russia (including the maritime areas), whereas the latter refers to the Asian part. A. Smolovskiy, "Voyenno-strategicheskaya Obstanovka v Arktike" [The military-strategic situation in the Artic], Morskoi Sbornik 2 (2006). 62.
2. The two-way influence between security policy decisions and civil-military relations has been observed in a number of "transitional societies," not least in Latin America. See Kai Michael Kenkel, " Human Security, Securitisation and Civil-Military Relations in Transitional Societies: The Case of Brazil " ( paper, 48th annual convention of the International Studies Association, Chicago, February 28 to March 3, 2007 ).
3. The list includes works such as T. J. Colton and T. Gustafson, eds., Soldiers and the Soviet State (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990).
4. D. Herspring, Russian Civil-Military Relations (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996).
5. R.V. Barylski, The Soldier in Russian Politics (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishing, 1998).
6. C. Desch, Civilian Control of the Military (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1999);
7. B.D. Taylor, Politics and the Russian Army (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
8. and Z. Barany Democratic Breakdown and the Decline of the Russian Military ( Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007 ).
9. S. Huntington, The Soldier and the State ( Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 1964 ).
10. Taylor, Politics, 42.
11. Ibid., 330.
12. See R. Kolkowicz, The Soviet Military and the Communist Party ( Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967 ).
13. See W. Odom, "The Party-Military Connection: A Critique," in Civil-Military Relations in Communist Systems, ed. D. R. Herspring and I. Volgyes ( Boulder, CO: Westview, 1978 ).
14. Colton and Gustafson, Soldiers and the Soviet State, 11-14 ; Herspring, Russian Civil-Military, xvi - xx.
15. Desch, Civilian Control, 5-6.
16. The term Copenhagen school was first used by Bill McSweeney in his 1996 article " Buzan and the Copenhagen School, " Review of International Studies, 22 (1996). in reference to the theoretical works done at the time by a group of researchers associated the Center for Peace and Conflict Research, established in 1985 and later renamed Copenhagen Peace Research Institute. Ole Waæver, Barry Buzan, and Jaap de Wilde are seen as the school's main contributors.
17. O. Waæver, " Securitisation: Taking Stock of a Research Programme in Security Studies " (draft paper, February 2003). 11.
18. O. Waæver, " Securitization and Desecuritization, " in On Security, ed. Ronnie D. Lipschutz (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995). 55.
19. The "securitizing move" is the act of presenting something as an existential threat to a referent object. The "securitizing actor(s)" is the one(s) who makes the argument about a threat to a referent object. The "audience" is those who approve or reject the securitizing move.
20. Waæver, " Securitisation: Taking Stock, " 11-12 ;
21. Waæver, " Securitization and Desecuritization, " 21-22.
22. Waæver, " Securitisation: Taking Stock, " 14-15 ;
23. B. Buzan, O. Waæver, and J. de Wilde, Security: A New Framework For Analysis (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1998). 32.
24. It should be emphasized that "desecuritization" is not synonymous with "giving a lower priority to." Issues may arise that demand the immediate attention of political elites without necessarily being security issues. Similarly, saying that something is no longer a security issue does not mean that it is no longer important. Desecuritization does, however, indicate that the issue in question is no longer perceived to represent an existential threat to the state's sovereignty, independence, or political order.
25. This was made clear by researchers at the Kola Science Center during a visit by the author to Apatity in September 2006.
26. R.K. Yin, Case Study Research: Design and Methods (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2003). 46-47. Yin distinguishes between "holistic" (single unit of analysis) and "embedded" (multiple units analysis) multi-case studies. This study belongs to the first category.
27. In this study, the mode of generalization is that of "analytic generalization" in which "a previously developed theory is used as a template with which to compare the empirical results of the case study." Yin, Case Study Research, 32-33.
28. Yin, Case Study Research, 116.
29. C. Tilly, " Means and Ends of Comparison in Macrosociology, " Comparative Social Research, 16 (1997). 48.
30. The increasing appreciation of the relevance and utility of process-tracing techniques in case studies has led to a certain "historization" of social sciences, as pointed out in A.L. George and A. Bennett, Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005). 205.
31. Yin, Case Study Research, 116.
32. Ibid., 22-26.
33. W. Schramm, Notes on Case Studies of Instructional Media Projects (Washington, DC: Academy of Educational Development, 1971). cited in Yin, Case Study Research, 12. Schramm's approach, which was related to the media sector, may also be relevant in the field of security studies, which tends to focus on security policy decision making.
34. Originally, licenses for the two fields were issued to Rosneft, but they were transferred to Sevmorneftegaz in November 2002. The company was established in 2001 by Rosshelf and Rosneft-Purneftegaz, which were subsidiaries of Gazprom and Rosneft, respectively. S. Pirani, " Shtokman Talks Start from a Blank Sheet, " Gas Briefing International, January 2003. http://www. quintessential.org.uk/SimonPirani/shtokmanjan03.htm.
35. See http://www.offshore-technology.com/projects/Prirazlomnoye/.
36. See http://www.offshore-technology.com/projects/shtokman/.
37. A. Medetsksy, " Foreign Partners Shut Out of Shtokman, " Moscow Times, October 10, 2006.
38. Arctic Operational Platform, Industry Needs, Workshop Report 2 (Helsinki, Finland: Ministry of Trade and Industry, 2003). 10.
39. Y. Trutnev, " O povyshenii effektivnosti osvoeniya uglevodorodnykh resursov kontinental'nogo shelfa Rossiyskoy Federatsii" [On the enhancement of efficiency of hydrocarbon resources development on the continental shelf of the Russian Federation], Mineral'nye resursy Rossii, 4 (2006). http://www.geoinform.ru/?an=trutnev-ru.
40. N. Krupenik, " Gazprom to Invest $500 Bln in Arctic Oil and Gas Field, " Itar-Tass Weekly News, April 11, 2006.
41. H.O. Bergesen, A. Moe, and W. streng, Soviet Oil and Security Interests in the Barents Sea (London: Frances Pinter, 1987). 67.
42. On missions, strategic nuclear submarines are often accompanied by one or more defending multipurpose attack submarines, which also need room to maneuver.
43. Ibid., 60-61, 72 ;
44. W.H. Critchley, " Polar Deployment of Soviet Submarines, " International Journal 39, 4 (1984). 856.
45. The "external" transit routes go southwestward through the Norwegian Sea and the so-called GIUK (Greenland, Iceland, United Kingdom) gap or (less commonly) northward, either east of Novaya Zemlya, between Novaya Zemlya and Svalbard, or between Svalbard and Greenland.
46. This point was made by a Russian officer at a Norwegian-Russian seminar on the relationship between petroleum and naval activities, held at Haakonsvern Naval Base, Norway, in March 2003.
47. N. Timakova, " Have Secrets, Will Sell: The Russian Government Intends to Market Geological and Geophysical Data, " Russian Energy Weekly 43 (November 7, 2006). 2.
48. This was made clear by one of Russia's leading security researchers, Dr. Alexei Arbatov, in an interview with the author at the Carnegie Moscow Center in September 2006.
49. M. Barabanov, Sovremennoye sostoyanie i perspektivy razvitiya rossiyskogo flota [Present situation and prospects for development of the Russian Navy] (Moscow: Center for Defense Information, 2006). 57-58.
50. See P. Podvig, " How Many Submarines Are on Patrol? " Posted September 16, 2006, at http://russianforces.org/blog/2006/09/how-many- submarines-are-on-pat.shtml.
51. " Russian Nuclear Subs to Survey Arctic Continental Shelf Borders, " RIA Novosti, March 21, 2006.
52. D. Fedorov, "U biznesa i armii odni tseli-vozrozhdenie Rossii" [The industry and the armed forces share the same goal-Russia's revival], Kraznaya zvezda, December 6, 2003, 1, 3.
53. See K. Atland, "The Introduction, Adoption and Implementation of Russia's 'Northern Strategic Bastion' Concept, 1992-1999," Journal of Slavic Military Studies 20, 4 (2007). 499-528.
54. P. Sapozhnikov and S. Chereshnev, " Lukoil dokachayet neft' do Murmanska" [Lukoil sends oil to Murmansk], Kommersant, March 13, 2002, 16.
55. The Soviet Union had 82 major river and sea terminals. Russia has approximately 40. V. Illarionov, " Severnye vorota Rossii" [Russia's northern gateway], Stroitel'naya gazeta, June 28, 2000, 7.
56. N. Andreassen, " Russian Arctic Naval base seeks U.S. oil mission, " Reuters, December 4, 2002.
57. E. Ivanova, " Neftyanaya ekspansiya na Kol'skiy Poluostrov" [Oil expansion on the Kola Peninsula], Rossbalt, May 28, 2002. http://www.rosbalt.ru/2002/05/28/52102.html.
58. Today, the oil from western Siberia is mainly shipped by railway to ports in the (shallow and, in winter, ice-covered) southeastern part of the Barents Sea, loaded onto small and ice-capable shuttle tankers, shipped to Murmansk, and reloaded to supertankers for long-distance export.
59. TNK was taken over by British Petroleum (BP) in February 2003 and is today part of TNK-BP. It was announced in August 2003 that Sibneft was to merger with Yukos and that a new company (YukosSibneft) was to be created. When Yukos President Mikhail Khodorkovsky was arrested in November the same year, the plans were put aside. Sibneft was later taken over by Gazprom. Gazprom, " LUKOIL, Sibneft, TNK, and Yukos to Sign Memorandum of Understanding on Murmansk Pipeline, " November 27, 2002.
60. I. Yegorov-Tismenko and Y. Salnikova, " Starved Ports: Russia's Northern Tanker Terminals Experience Shortage of Supply, " Russian Energy Weekly 39 (October 9, 2006). 2-5.
61. J. Denisenko and E. Drankina, " Chetvero o Mokhnatkinoi Pakhte" [Four about Mokhnatkina Pakhta], Profil', December 9, 2002, 34.
62. There are a number of stories about collisions between tankers and submarines in global hot spots. As late as January 2007, a Japanese supertanker and a U.S. nuclear submarine collided in the Hormuz Strait at the entrance of the Persian Gulf. J. Krane, " U.S. Submarine, Japanese Ship Collide, " Associated Press, January 9, 2007.
63. Denisenko and Drankina, " Chetvero o Mokhnatkinoi Pakhte, " 34.
64. Y. Golotyuk, "Komanduyushiy neftenosnym shel'fom. Oba okeanskikh flota Rossii cmenili rukovodstvo" [Commander of the oil shelf. Both of the Russian ocean fleets have changed their leadership], Vremya novostei, December 6, 2001, 3.
65. Suchkov was suspended from his position as Commander of the Northern Fleet after the sinking of the decommissioned nuclear submarine K-159 off the Kola coast in August 2003. He was replaced by Admiral Mikhail Abramov in June 2004. Vladimir Vysotskiy was appointed in September 2005, after Abramov was promoted to Chief of Staff of the Russian Navy.
66. " Gazprom Changed Site for Proposed Shtokman LNG Plant, " Barents Observer, August 14, 2007. http://www.barentsobserver.com/gazprom- changed-site-for-planned-shtokman-lng-plant.527709.html.
67. For a map of the territorial administrative system of the Kola Peninsula,see http://2004.murman.ru/nature/adm-delenie/index-eng.shtml.
68. This point was made by researchers at the Kola Science Center in Apatity during a visit by the author in September 2006.
69. Barabanov, Sovremennoye Sostoyanie, 57-58.
70. V. Gundarov, " Pogruzivshis', nedeemsya vsplyt'" [Having taken a dive, we hope to resurface], Rossiyskoe voennoye obozrenie, 3 (2005). 21.
71. The Northern Fleet has seven major base complexes along the ice-free western and central Kola coast. These are located (from west to east) in Zapadnaya Litsa, Vidyayevo (Ara Bay and Ura Bay), Oleyna Bay, Skalisty, Severomorsk, and Gremikha. The fleet headquarters are located in Severomorsk on the east bank of the Kola fiord, 25 km north of Murmansk.
72. See " Northern Fleet Bases and Shipyards, " http://www.bellona.org ;
73. " Russian Northern Fleet, " http://en.wikipedia.org ; and J. Handler, " The Northern Fleet's Nuclear Submarine Bases, " Jane's Intelligence Review 5, 12 (December 1, 1993). 551-56.
74. D. Litovkin, " Nash flot snova zavoyevaet mir" [Our Navy again conquers the world], Izvestiya, June 9, 2003, 4.
75. "Komanduyushiy Severnym Flotom ne protiv stroitel'stva neftyanogo terminala v bukhte Mokhnatkina Pakhta" [The Commander of the Northern Fleet is not against the building of an oil terminal in Mokhnatkina Pakhta Bay], Regnum, February 28, 2002. http://www.regnum.ru/news/24554.html.
76. " Meeting of Gazprom and RF Navy Working Group, " March 18, 2005. http://www.capitallinkrussia.com/press/companies/50010088/33178.html.
77. "Gazprom and RF Navy Ink Cooperation Agreement," November 24, 2005. http://www.capitallinkrussia.com/press/companies/50010088/37236.htm The list in the Gazprom press release has, for purposes of clarity, been slightly reformulated by the author.
78. A.-K. Jorgensen, " The Military Sector: Federal Responsibility, Regional Concern, " in Centre-Periphery Relations in Russia. The Case of the Northwestern Regions, ed. G. Honneland and H. Blakkisrud (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2001). 200.
79. Litovkin, " Nash Flot Snova, " 4.
80. Jorgensen, " The Military Sector, " 201.
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88. Kolchin, " Neftegazovvyi Kompleks Rossii, " 22.
89. A. Vestnikov, "Raboty budet menshe?" [Less work?], Korabel'naya storona, January 23, 2007, 1.
90. N. Kalistratov, " Zvyozdochka: Russia's Ship Repair Industry Leader," Military Parade, May-June 1998. http://milparade.udm.ru/27/078. htm.
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