The aestheticization of ethnicity: Imagining the Dogon at the Musée du quai Branly

Musical Quarterly

Volumn 89, Issue 4, 2006, Pages 600-642

  Levitz, Tamara ^a  

^a CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 57749140553     PISSN: 00274631     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/musqtl/gdn001     Document Type: Article

References (216)

1. There are other museums in France that have displayed African art, including André Malraux's Musée des Arts Africains et Océaniens and the Musée Dapper, which opened in Paris in 1986, funded by the privately organized Fondation Dapper. For a history and discussion of practices of exhibiting African art in France, see Jean-Louis Paudrat, "From Africa," in Primitivism: Modernism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), 125-75;
2. and Diala Touré, "Taxonomy of African Arts in France 1900-1999; The Great Switch from Primitive to Primary Arts," Mots pluriels 12 (December 1999), available online at http://www.arts.uwa.edu.au/MotsPluriels/ MP1299dt.html (accessed 17 June 2007).
3. Some recent publications that contribute to perceptions of "arts premiers" in France (and that are displayed prominently at the Branly gift shop) include: Chefs-d'oeuvre et civilisations: Les arts premiers au Louvre, a CD-ROM (Paris: Réunion des musées nationals, 2003);
4. Mathilde Annaud, Les arts premiers: Reflets sauvages d'Occident (Toulouse: Milan, 2007);
5. Catherine Clément, Qu'est-ce qu'un peuple premier? (Paris: Panama, 2006);
6. Michèle Coquet, Arts primitifs, arts populaires, arts premiers: Petit cours de rattra-page à l'usage des parents (Paris: Fernand Nathan, 2007);
7. Marine Degli and Marie Mauzé, Arts premiers: he temps de la reconnaissance (Paris: Gallimard, 2006);
8. Bérénice Geoffroy-Schneiter, Arts premiers (Paris: Assouline, 2005);
9. Isabelle Glorieux-Desouche, Comment parler des arts premiers aux enfants? Afrique, Amériques, Asie et Océanie (Paris: Le Baron Perché, 2006);
10. and Lionel Richard, Arts premiers: L'évolution d'un regard (Paris: Editions du Chêne, 2005).
11. Debates concerning Kerchache's "arts premiers" and the Musée du quai Branly raged for years in the French press, producing a secondary literature that extends far beyond the scope of this endnote. For insights into the issues, I recommend Bernard Dupaigne's highly polemical Le scandale des arts premiers: La véritable histoire du musée du quai Branly (Paris: Mille et Une Nuits, 2006);
12. Marc-Olivier Gonseth, Jacques Hainan!, and Roland Kaehr, eds., Le musée cannibale (Neuchâtel: Musée d'ethnographie, 2002);
13. Bruno Latour, ed., Le dialogue des cultures: Actes des rencontres inaugurales du musée du quai Branly (21 juin 2006) (Paris: Actes Sud, 2007);
14. Herman Lebovics, "Echoes of the 'Primitive' in France's Move to Postcoloniality: The Musée du quai Branly," Global Studies Journal: Global History, Society, Civilization 4 (5 February 2007), available online at http://www.stonybrook.edu/globality/Articles/no4.html
15. "Aminata Traoré à propos du Musée Branly," available online at http://www.hns-info.net/article.php3?id-arti-cle=8774;
16. and Aminata Traoré, Le viol de l'imaginaire (Paris: Fayard/Actes Sud, 2002). (Online articles accessed 17 June 2007.)
17. The collections of the Musée de 1'Homme have now been transferred to the Musée du quai Branly, where they have been digitized (at least in part) and are available to the public. This is not evident from the rather vague online Catalogue de la documentation muséale et des archives (http://www.quaibranly.fr/fr/documentation/ le-catalogue-de-la-documentation- museale-et-des-archives/index.html). In this article, I use former call numbers from the Musée de 1'Homme (MdH) and new document numbers from the Musée du quai Branly (MdqB) for all archival materials. Certain materials are not available at Branly for judicial reasons, as I have noted in each case.
18. Jacques Chirac delivered this inaugural lecture at the Musée du quai Branly on 20 June 2006. It was reprinted in numerous journals and on Web sites, including http:// www.elysee.fr/elysee/elysee.fr/francais/actualites/ deplacements-en-france/2006/ juin/inau-guration du-musee-du-quai-hranly.52660. html (accessed 17 June 2007). On this Web site, one can listen to this lecture and to interviews Chirac gave concerning the Musée du quai Branly.
19. Although Kofi Agawu addresses this topic in a wide range of articles, I would recommend Representing African Music: Postcolonial Notes, Queries, Positions (New York: Routledge, 2003).
20. See also Kwame Anthony Appiah, Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers (New York: W. W. Norton, 2006).
21. Benoît de l'Estoile, '"Des races non pas inférieures, mais différentes: De l'Exposition Coloniale au Musée de 1'Homme," in Les politiques de l'anthropologie: Discours et pratiques en France (1860-1940), ed. Claude Blanckaert (Paris: L'Harmattan, 2001), 457.
22. Another version of this artful (and expensive) photograph of this mask reproduced in Figure 1 graces the covers of the souvenir catalogue Chefs-d'oeuvre dans les collections du musée du quai Branly (Paris: Musée du quai Branly, 2006)
23. and of books like Marine Degli's and Olivier Morel's L'art dogon (Paris: Editions Courtes et Longues, 2006). This image is also scattered indiscriminately across the Web in relation to discussions of the Musée du quai Branly. It cost 277 Euros to reprint it (with worldwide rights) here.
24. Stéphane Martin, "Avant-propos," in Imagier du Musée du quai Branly (Paris: Musée du quai Branly, 2006), 7, 9. Unless otherwise indicated, all translations from the French in this article are my own.
25. See Léon Géraud to Georges Henri Rivière, 27 October 1931 and 3 November 1931, and Rivière to Géraud, 5 November 1931, MdH, 2 AM 1 F 1d/MdqB, document 15138.
26. See also Bernard Dupaigne, "Les collections africaines au Musée de 1'Homme," in Secrets d'initiés: Masques d'Afrique noire dans les collections du Musée de l'Homme, ed. Francine Ndiaye (Ville de Boulogne-Billancourt: Editions Sépia, 1994), 11-16. I am grateful to Eric Jolly for informing me about the existence of these documents.
27. In translation, the mask's museum label reads as "Rabbit Mask, Dogon Population, Mali, Region of Bandiagara, Beginning of the Twentieth Century." It is identified as a "gift from Georges Henri Riviere" ("Don Georges Henri Rivière"). See Chefs-d'oeuvre dans les collections, 47.
28. In the online catalogue of the Musée du quai Branly, the object is listed as inventory number 71.1931.49.28 and given an unusually long description, including the information that "this mask was worn for a spectacle at the Exposition coloniale in Paris in 1931, like objects no. 23-97 of this collection." See http://www.quaibranly.fr/cc/pod/resultats.aspx ?b=1&t=l (accessed 1 October 2007).
29. Michael Kimmelman, "Heart of Darkness in the City of Light," New York Times, 2 July 2006, online with video at http://travel.nytimes.com/ 2006/07/02/arts/design/ 02kimm.html (accessed 17 June 2007).
30. Charles Taylor, Multiculturalism, with commentary by Kwame Anthony Appiah, jürgen Habermas, Steven C. Rockefeller, Michael Walzer, and Susan Wolf, ed. and introduced by Amy Gutmann (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994).
31. Catherine Hodier and Michel Pierre, L'Exposition coloniale (Brussels: Editions Complexe, 1991), 24-25.
32. See also Barnett Singer, "Lyautey: An Interpretation of the Man and French Imperialism," Journal of Contemporary History 26 (January 1991): 131-57.
33. Marcel Olivier, "Introduction," in Rapport géné ral, vol. 1 (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1932), xiv.
34. See also André Demaison, Exposition coloniale Internationale: Guide officiel (Paris: Mayeux, 1931), 17-21;
35. and Hodier and Pierre, L'Exposition coloniale, 14, 22, 106.
36. Hubert Lyautey, letter of 7 January 1929;
37. quoted in L'Estoile, '"Des races non pas inférieures,'" 397.
38. For background on colonial and world exhibitions in France, see Annegret Fauser, Musical Encounters at the 1889 Paris World's Fair (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2005);
39. and Herman Lebovics, True France: The Wars over Cultural Identity, 1900-1945 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992).
40. In summer 2006, a critical reevaluation of the Exposition coloniale took place in Paris, with conferences and celebrations documented on a Web site, http://clioweb.free. fr/dossiers/colonisation/expo31.htm (accessed 17 June 2007).
41. For an overview of opposition to the exposition, see Hodier and Pierre, L'Exposition coloniale, 126-34;
42. and Patricia Morton, "Challenging the Exposition: The Anticolonial Opposition," in Hybrid Modernities: Architecture and Representation at the 1931 Colonial Exposition, Paris (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000), 96-129.
43. See also "Ne visitez pas 1'Exposition coloniale [Paris 1931]," rpt. in José Pierre, ed., Tracts surréalistes et déclarations collectives (Paris: Le Terrain Vague, 1980), 1: 194-95;
44. Jean-Pierre Biondi and Gilles Morin, Les anticolcmialistes (1881-1962) (Paris: Robert Laffont, 1992);
45. Claude Liauzu, Histoire de l'anticolonialisme (Paris: Armand Colin, 2007);
46. Alan Ruscio, La question coloniale dans "l'Humanité" (1904-2004) (Paris: Editions La Dispute, 2005); and the extraordinary Web sites http://etudescoloniales.canalblog.com and http://www.ldh-toulon.net (accessed 17 June 2007).
47. Morton, Hybrid Modernities, 6.
48. Hubert Lyautey, "Cérémonie de la pose de la première pierre du musée des colonies (5 novembre 1928)," in Olivier, Rapport général, vol. 4 (Paris : Imprimerie nationale, 1932), 367.
49. See also Morton, Hybrid Modernities, 82, 219.
50. On French theories of "assimilation" versus "association," see Raymond Betts, Assimilation and Assocmtion in French Colonial Theory, 1890-1914 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1960);
51. and Véronique Dimier, "Construction et enjeux d'un discours scientifique sur l'administration coloniale comparée en France et en Grande-Bretagne (vers 1930-vers 1950)" (PhD diss, 2 vols., Université Pierre Mendès France Grenoble 2, 1999).
52. L'Estoile, '"Des races non pas inférieures,'" 405.
53. L'Estoile conceptualizes this material within a different framework in "'Le visage de l'Humanité': l'Exposition coloniale de 1931," in Le goût pour les autres: De l'Exposition coloniale aux arts premiers (Paris: Flammarion, 2007), 33-74.
54. Lyautey, "Cérémonie de la pose de la première pierre," 376.
55. Robert Delavignette and Maurice Leenhardt, remarks published in Congrès international et intercolonial de la société indigène (5-10 octobre 1931) (Paris: Exposition coloniale Internationale de Paris 1931/Coueslant, 1931).
56. James Clifford famously coined the still contested yet powerful term "ethnographic surrealism" in The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988).
57. See, for example, Nicola Savarese, "1931: Antonin Artaud Sees Balinese Theatre at the Paris Colonial Exposition," Drama Review 45, no. 3 (2001): 51-77;
58. and Savarese, Parigi/ArtaudlBali: Antonin Artaud vede il teatro balinese all'Esposizione Coloniale di Parigi del 1931 (L'Aquila: Textus, 1997). Eminent dance critic André Levinson reported in extensive detail on all aspects of dance at the Exposition coloniale in his columns in Comœdia and Candide.
59. On Georges Henri Rivière, see Nina Gorgus, Der Zauherer der Vitrinen: Zur Museologie Georges Henri Rivières (Munich: Wasmann Miinster, 1999);
60. and Jean Jamin, "Introduction à Miroir de l'Afrique," in Michel Leiris, Miroir d'Afrique, ed. Jean Jamin (Paris: Quarto/Gallimard, 1996), 9-59.
61. See Christine Laurière, "Georges Henri Rivière au Trocadéro: Du magasin de bric-à-brac à la sécheresse de 1'étiquette," Gradhiva: Revue d'histoire et d'archives de l'anthropologie 33 (2003): 57-66.
62. Georges Henri Rivière, "Défense et illustration du musée d'ethnographie," Les nouvelles littéraires, 8 August 1931.
63. See also "À propos de l'art nègre," Figaro artistique illustré (August-September 1931): 81-82;
64. "Le musée d'ethnographie du Trocadéro," Documents 1 (1929): 58;
65. and La muséologie selon Georges Henri Rivière: Cours de muséologie, textes et têmoignages (Paris: Dunod, 1989).
66. Several copies of the guest list, with replies and suggestions, are included in files 2 AM 1 F 1b/MdqB: document 15131; and 2 AM 1 F 1c/MdqB: documents 15134, 32435, 32437, and 32438. Someone sent Rivière a dictated four-page list of everyone who should be invited from the worlds of art, music, and museum culture. This list includes the Princesse de Polignac (who declined the invitation) and critics like Roland-Manuel and Henri Prunières. "1 won't even mention Milhaud, Honegger, or Poulenc," the anonymous advisor writes (see unsigned, typed letter to Rivière, 30 June 1931, MdH, 2 AM 1 F Ib/MdqB document 15131). Roth de Falla and Stravinsky responded that they would attend. Numerous society columns noted who was in attendance that night, including "À l'Exposition coloniale," Le journal des débars, 13 July 1931. These notices are also kept in MdH, 2 AM 1 F 1b/MdqB document 15133 (not available).
67. Georges Henri Rivière to Hubert Lyautey, 8 July 1931, in MdH, 2 AM 1 F le/ MdqB, document 15139.
68. The critic Monplaisir described the effect as "étrangement voisin" in "Entrez dans la danse: Danse macabre, danse exotique, danse des blancs," Record, 21 July 1931.
69. "Danses africaines," Aux écoutes, 18 July 1931.
70. See V. F., "Une fête au palais de 1'A.O.F.: Par le chant et la danse l'âme de la France noire s'y est exprimée avec tin art parfait," La dépêche coloniale, 14 July 1931.
71. Paul Morand refers to red as the "color of Africa" in describing the African pavilion in "Rien que la terre à l'Exposition coloniale," Revue des deux mondes 101, no. 8 (15 August 1931): 338.
72. Sylvie Palà, "Adaptions, transformations, transgressions d'usage: Le regard sur l'autre dans ses manifestations," in Documents Exposition Coloniale Paris 1931 (Paris: Imprimerie de service technique des bibliothèques, 1981), 23.
73. Sylviane Leprun, Le théâtre des colonies: Scénographie, acteurs et discours de l'imaginaire dans les expositions, 1855-1937 (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1986), 121. Leprun provides a historical overview of how French expositions portrayed Sudanese architecture from 1889 to 1937 on pp. 111-28.
74. Gabriel Louis Angoulvant regretted that loudspeakers were not used to greater effect in indoctrinating listeners in the French West African pavilion, as they were at Wembley in 1923. See his commentary, "Les palais et les pavilions: V. L'Afrique Occidental Française," Revue des deux mondes 11, no. 8 (15 August 1931): 834-54.
75. "L'âme coloniale," Columbia-Revue (1931): 89. This flyer was distributed at the Columbia records booth at the Exposition coloniale.
76. Rivière staged several exhibitions at the Trocadéro that summer to complement the Exposition coloniale, including the Exposition ethnographique des colonies français, which opened on 29 May 1931. See "Une succursale de l'Exposition coloniale: Elle s'oeuvre aujourd'hui au Musée ethnographique du Trocadéro," La dépêche coloniale, 29 May 1931;
77. and Lionel Attuly, "Dieux étranges et fétiches des indigènes de nos colonies étendent l'Exposition coloniale jusqu'au musée du Trocadéro," Paris-Midi, 30 May 1931. These articles are included in MdH, 2 AM 1 B 4a/not available at MdqB.
78. Georges Henri Rivière, "Danses indigenes des colonies françaises," typescript of a lecture-demonstration held at the Trocadéro on 3 November 1931, MdH, 2 AM 1 D 13a ("Socié té des amis du musée du Trocadéro"). I could not find this document at the MdqB.
79. Louis Desplagnes, Le plateau central ntgérien: Une mission archéologique et etfnographique an Soudan français (Paris: Émile Larose, 1907), 183.
80. On the construction of Dogon ethnicity, see Carola Lentz, "'Tribalism' and Ethnicity in Africa: A Review of Four Decades of Anglophone Research," and Jacky Bouju, "Qu'est-ce que 'l'ethnie' dogon?" in Colliers des sciences humaines 31 (1995): 303-28 and 329-64, respectively.
81. Monplaisir, "Entrez dans la danse."
82. Richard Handler, "On Having a Culture: Nationalism and the Preservation of Québec's Patrimoine," in Objects and Others: Essays on Museums and Material Culture, ed. George Stocking (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985), 192-217.
83. See Olivier, Rapport général, vol. 5, no. 2 (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1932), 299. This list includes twenty-two "dancers" from the Côte d'lvoire, twelve from the French Sudan [the Dogon], and fifteen from Dahomey.
84. Georges Henri Rivière to Colonel Derendinger, directeur adjoint de la participation de l'armée à l'Exposition Coloniale, 8 July 1931, and Derendinger's response from 9 July 1931. Rivière asked Derendinger if he would accept to "raise the level of" the event by allowing the participation of the army and attending himself. As a token of his appreciation, he sent him Michel Leiris, Instructions sommaires pour les collecteurs d'objets ethnographiques (Paris: Musée d'ethnographie, 1931).
85. In this influential brochure, Leiris had summarized Marcel Mauss's thoughts on collecting objects for use during the Mission Dakar-Djibouti. Rivière and Paul Rivet thanked both Colonel Derendinger and Commandant Decujis for their participation in letters dated 11 July 1931, MdH, 2 AM 1 F le/MdqB, document 15139. The army's transport cost Rivière 100 francs (see Rivière, handwritten memo, 8 July 1931, MdH, 2 AM 1 F 1b/MdqB, document 15130).
86. It was difficult for many French writers and ethnographers to maintain the illusion of absolute difference between Africans and French natives after the French government instigated military conscription in the colonies during World War I, bringing increasing numbers of African soldiers and émigrés to the hexagon. Public awareness of this history was raised in France in 2006 with the release of the film Indigènes (director Rachid Bouchareb). See Gregory Mann, Native Sons: West African Veterans and France in the Twentieth Century (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006).
87. French scholars more dramatically usurped the Dogon voices a few years later, when they began publishing articles in Minotaure and other journals on aspects of Dogon society they had experienced during their first expedition to the Bandiagara cliffs as part of the Mission Dakar-Djibouti; see Minotaure 2 (1933).
88. The leader of that mission, Marcel Griaule, became the uncontested voice of the Dogon shortly thereafter, a position he retained for decades (and in some circles to the present day). Eric Jolly critiques this tradition of French-Dogon ventriloquism in light of Catherine Clement's radio broadcasts on the Dogon on his highly polemical "le Blog des rectifications (analyse des émissions radio Catherine Clément)," online at http://www.lumierespri-maires.com/blogl/index.httnl (accessed 17 June 2007).
89. Alejo Carpentier, "Segundo viaje a la exposición colonial," Carteles, 4 October 1931;
90. rpt. in Carpentier, Crónicas, vol. 2 (Havana: Editorial Arte y Literature, 1976), 500-502.
91. Carpentier provided further details of the Exposition coloniale in "Primer viaje a la exposición colonial," Carteles, 27 September 1931;
92. rpt. in Crónicas, vol. 2, 495-99.
93. Paulla A. Ebron, Performing Africa (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002), 9.
94. In one article, Baron Robert Rothschild remarked sarcastically how "a woman wearing the new hat-wig created by Antoine caused the naked nègres to laugh hysterically." See untitled notice in À Paris, 24 July 1931. Fashion columns in numerous journals, including Le monde colonial illustré, L'art vivant, and Comœdia, discussed African innovations throughout the summer.
95. See also Michelle Tolini Finamore, "Fashioning the Colonial at the Paris Expositions, 1925 and 1931," Fashion Theory 7 (2003): 345-60. Daily cartoons incessantly parodied these fashion differences, especially in Le petit parisien, Le monde colonial illustré, and Candide.
96. See Jean Galdou, "Courrier de l'Exposition coloniale: Les noirs d'Afrique face aux Américains," Comœdia 6770, 3 August 1931;
97. and Ralph Soupault's series: "Les colonies inconnues: Saviez-vous que Paris possède ses cités coloniales permanentes? Les cités coloniales de Paris et de la banlieue décrites et dessinées par Ralph Soupault," Comœdia 6809, 11 September 1931;
98. "Dans la plaine de la Fringale vers Nanterre: Avec tine autre espèce de bohémiens: Les rabouins," Comœdia 6811, 13 September 1931;
99. "À Billancourt, devant le mystère jaune," Comœdia 6814, 16 September 1931;
100. "Saviez-vous que Paris a son port, un vrai port de mer, de vrais marins? ..." Comœdia 6818, 20 September 1931;
101. and "La croisière noire en plein Montmartre," Comœdia 6832, 4 October 1931.
102. For one of many photographs of the African rulers, see the front page of Paris-Soir, 26 April 1931.
103. See also Jacques le Brussey, "S. M. Thermidor Etchie Amnallah, roi nègre regarde tristement de sa case parisienne tomber 'Madame la pluie,"' Paris-Soir, 5 May 1931;
104. Roger Blin, "Le scandale du village canaque," La dépêche africaine 4, no. 38 (1 July 1931): 5.
105. See also Didier Daeninckx, Cannibale (Paris: Gallimard, 2000);
106. Joël Dauphiné, Canaques de la Nouvelle-Calédonie à Paris: De la case au zoo (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1998);
107. and "Les Canala a l'exposition coloniale de 1931," online at http://www.ac-noumea.nc/canala/sitecollege/projets/expoweb (accessed 17 June 2007).
108. Jean Comaroff, "The Empire's Old Clothes: Fashioning the Colonial Subject," in Cross-Cultural Consumption: Global Markets, Local Realities, ed. David Howes (New York: Routledge, 1996), 19-38;
109. Hildi Hendrickson, ed., Clothing and Difference; Embodied Identities in Colonial and Post-Colonial Africa (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1997);
110. and Phyllis M. Martin, "Contesting Clothes in Colonial Brazzaville," The Journal of African History 35 (1994): 401-26.
111. Georges Henri Rivière, memo dated 9 July 1931, MdH, file 2 AM 1 F 1b/Mdqb, document 15130.
112. André Schaeffner with André Coeuroy, Le jazz (Paris: Claude Aveline, 1926; rpt., Paris: J.-M. Place, 1988);
113. and Schaeffner, Strawinsky (Paris: Les Editions Rieder, 1931).
114. Schaeffner conducted numerous intensive interviews with Stravinsky in writing this book and sent him the proofs for close commentary. He maintained a close relationship with him and his son Théodore at this time. In a letter to Stravinsky dated 8 July 1931, Schaeffner indicates that he "looks forward to seeing [him] on Friday," that is, at the gala performance described here. See André Schaeffner to Igor Stravinsky, 8 July 1931, microfilm 102.1, 2657-58, Paul Sacher Stiftung (hereafter cited as PSS).
115. André Schaeffner, "Le clavecin," in Albert Lavignac, Encyclopédie de la musique et dictionnaire du conservatoire, part 2, vol. 3 (Paris: C. Delagrave, 1927), 2036-60.
116. Lionel de la Laurencie, who, like Landowska, inspired Schaeffner's interest in organology and comparative aesthetics, commissioned this article. Schaeffner kept among his papers a copy of Laurencie's article "L'exotisme dans l'ancienne musique irançais," Courrier musical, 15 February 1920;
117. see André Schaeffner, "Textmanuskripte," PSS.
118. Schaeffner changed the name of his department at the Trocadéro to the Département d'ethnologie musicale after returning from the Mission Dakar-Djibouti in 1932. See Geneviève Dournon, "L'héritage muséographique d'André Schaeffner: Les collections d'instruments de musique du Musée de l'Homme,"
119. and Gilbert Rouget, "Qui étiez-vous, André Schaeffner?" in Revue de musicologie 68 (1982): 214-20 and 2-15, respectively.
120. See also Bernard Lortat-Jacob, "L'ethnomusicologie en France," Acta Musicologica 62 (1990): 290;
121. as well as André Schaeffner, Essais de musicologie et autres fantaisies (Paris: Le Sycomore, 1980)
122. and Variations sur la musique (Paris: Fayard, 1998).
123. Much of this information is included in Schaeffner's handwritten notes of a lecture given at the Musée de l'Homme, 2 March 1965, kept among his unpublished papers, "Textmanuskripte," PSS. In the same lecture, Schaeffner comments that, "the score of Le sacre has the French subtitle 'Tableaux of Russian Pagan Life.' There I already found myself, without knowing it, right in the heart of ethnography."
124. See also Jacques B. Hess, "Schaeffner, le jazz et l'Afrique," Revue de musicologie 68 (1982): 353-60.
125. Schaeffner's lecture has been published as "La musique danse, les danseurs chan-tent," in "Du beau musicale," texts edited and annotated by Jean Jamin, Gradhiva: Revue semestrieüe d'histoire et a"archives de l'anthropologie 20 (1996): 104-07.
126. Jamin provides an excellent introduction to these texts on pp. 95-99, in which he notes the parallels between Schaeffner's approach to ethnography and that planned for Branly. Schaeffner's lecture is also mentioned in "Danses africaines," Aux écoutes, 18 July 1931
127. and in V. F., "Une fête au palais de l'A.O.F."
128. Schaeffner is referring to Emile Durkheim, Les formes élémentaires de la vie religieuse: Le système totémique en Australie (Paris: F. Alcan, 1912; rpt., Québec: Librairie Générale française, 1991).
129. See Schaeffner, "La musique danse, les danseurs chantent," 104.
130. See Marcel Mauss, "Techniques du corps," Journal de Psychologic 32, nos. 3-4 (15 March-15 April 1936);
131. rpt. in Mauss, Sociologie a anthropologic (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1950), 365-88.
132. Around the time of the 10 July gala, Schaeffner shifted his perspective on collecting musical instruments through dialogue with his colleagues on the Mission Dakar-Djibouti and by reading Michel Leiris's Instructions sommaires pour les collecteurs d'objets ethnographiques. See André Schaeffner, "Projet de collaboration à la Mission Dakar-Djibouti," in "Du beau musicale," 101-03.
133. The tour des instruments at Branly is a historical result of Schaeffner's organologically oriented scholarly methodology. For historical insight into this subject, see Jann Pasler, "The Utility of Musical Instruments in the Racial and Colonial Agendas of Late Nineteenth-Century France," Journal of the Royal Musical Association 129, no. 1 (Spring 2004): 24-76.
134. Schaeffner with Coeuroy, Le jazz, 72-74.
135. My understanding of the role of spectacle in twentieth-century French constructions of African difference is strongly influenced by the writings of Walter Benjamin and Jean Jamin (which I will not list in full here), and by Guy Debord's Qeuvres (Paris: Quarto/Gallimard, 2006).
136. See, more specifically, Veit Erlmann, Music, Modernity, and the Global Imagination: South Africa and the West (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999);
137. Susan A. Glenn, Female Spectacle; The Theatrical Roots of Modern Feminism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000);
138. and V. Y. Mudimbe, The Idea of Africa (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994).
139. Jean Jamin, "Objets trouvés des paradis perdus: A propos de la mission Dakar-Djibouti," in Collections passion, ed. Jacques Hainard and Roland Kaehr (Neuchâtel: Musée d'ethnographie, 1982), 72-73, 76.
140. See Gustave Fréjaville, "Le music-hall à l'Exposition," as part of the article "Music-Halls, Cirques et Cabarets: De l'Étoile à Vincennes," Comœdia 6820, 22 September 1931;
141. and Jean Galdou, "Courrier de l'Exposition Coloniale: 'Le monde colonial qui chante et qui danse,'" Comœdia 6817, 19 September 1931.
142. André Levinson severely criticized Lyautey's decision to put the indigenous dance programs in the hands of music hall specialists in "Le spectacle exotique à l'Exposition coloniale," L'art vivant 151 (August 1931), 374-83.
143. An assortment of these programs is kept in the Auguste Rondel Collection, Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal, now the Département des arts du spectacle, Bibliothèque nationale, Paris, France. On concert programs issued at the Exposition coloniale, the Dogon dancers are frequently referred to as "mimes of the African bush." See, for example, the program for an evening concert on 22 May 1931, printed invitation included in MdH, 2 AM 1 F Id/MdqB, document 15135.
144. Sylvie Chalaye, "Theatre et cabarets: Le 'nègte' spectacle," in Zoos humains: XIXe et XXe siècles, ed. Nicolas Bancel, Pascal Blanchard, Gilles Boëtsch, Éric Deroo, and Sandrine Lemaire (Paris: Editions La Découverte, 2002), 298.
145. Petrine Archer-Straw describes a theatrical reenactment of the Dahomeyan conquest at the Theatre de la Porte Saint-Martin in 1892 in Negrophilia: Avant-Garde Paris and Black Culture in the 1920s (New York: Thames and Hudson, 2000), 32.
146. See also Anne Décoret-Ahiha, Les danses exotiques en France 1880-1940 (Paris: Centre national de la danse, 2004).
147. V. F., "Une fête au palais de l'A.O.F."
148. For information on anticolonial agitation in Dahomey in the early 1930s, see Alice Conklin, A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa, 1895-1930 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997);
149. Kojo Tovalou Houénou, Le problème de la race noire (Paris: Editions de la Ligue universelle pour la défense de la race noire, 1924);
150. and Emile Derlin-Zinsou and Luc Zouménou, Kojo Tovalou Houénou, précurseur, 1887-1936: Pannégrisrne et modernité (Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 2004).
151. Gaetano Ciarcia, De la mémoire ethnographique: L'exotisme du pays dogon (Paris: Editions de l'école des hautes études en sciences socials, 2003).
152. Desplagnes provides some of the first images published in France of Dogon ritual, masks, and dancers in Le plateau central nigérien, 304-05.
153. See also Paul Morand, Paris, Tomhouctou: Documentaire (Paris: Flammarion, 1928),
154. and William Seabrook, Jungle Ways (London: George G. Harrap, 1931).
155. On the later effects of tourism in the Bandiagara cliffs, see Marco Aime, Diario dogon (Turin: Bollati Boringhieri, 2000);
156. and Anne Doquet, Les masques dogon: Ethnologic savante et ethnologic autochone (Paris: Karthala, 1999).
157. Leprun, Le théâtre des colonies, 17.
158. Marcel Olivier references Verne in the Rapport général, vol. 5, no. 2, 280.
159. Hergé's Tintin au Congo ran from 5 June 1930 to 11 June 1931 in Le petit ving-tième. Hergé rewrote the volume in 1946 to address colonial issues. This latter version is still available today as Tintin au Congo (Paris: Casterman, 1993).
160. Borders bookstores in England no longer sell it to children because of its racist content. In August 2007, the Congolese student Mbutu Mondondo Bienvenu launched a lawsuit in Belgium to have this book recognized as "racist," and taken out of circulation. The French colonial imaginary was also profoundly shaped by Leo Frobenius's writings and by Lucien Lévy-Bruhl's La mentalité primitive (Paris: Felix Alcan, 1922).
161. "Don't photograph me, mister," a caption under a photograph of an unidentified Dahomeyan man in L'intransigeant reads, "or at least promise me you'll bring me a picture of you that I can show people when I return home to Dahomey." "L'Afrique à l'Exposition," L'intransigeant, 9 June 1931.
162. This notice is reprinted in Miguel Zamacois, "La leçon des 'sauvages,'" Paris-Soir, 7 August 1931.
163. Rivière and Rivet thanked Decujis for his "artists" in a letter dated 11 July, MdH, 2 AM 1 F le/MdqB, document 15139. Philippe Stern likewise recruited African musicians from the military to perform on his series of recordings from the Exposition coloniale.
164. On Dogon ritual and drumming, see Marcel Griaule, Masques dogons, Travaux et mémoires de l'Institut d'ethnologie 33 (Paris: Institut d'ethnologie, 1938; 4th ed., 1994);
165. Moussa Konaté, Michel Le Bris, and Geneviève Calame-Griaule, Les mondes dogon (Paris: Centre culturel Abbaye de Daoulas, 2002);
166. Giovanni Salvioni, Danze dogon e bambara: Il linguaggio simbolico dinamico tra rito, ammaestramento et spettacolo (Milan: F. Angeli, 1984);
167. and Famedji-Koto Tchimou, Langage de la danse chez les Dogons (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1995).
168. V. F., "Une fete au palais de l'A.O.F."
169. Agawu, Representing African Music, 61.
170. For a riviting account of this spectacular -ized rhythm, see Alejo Carpentier, "Segundo viaje a la exposición colonial."
171. See, for example, Pascal Blanchard and Nicolas Bancel, De l'indigène à l'immigré (Paris: Gallimard, 1998/2001);
172. Pascal Blanchard, Eric Deroo, and Gilles Manceron, Le Paris noir (Paris: Hazan, 2001);
173. and the film Zoos humains, directed by Blanchard and Deroo (Paris: Les films du village, Cités télévision, and Les bâtisseurs de mémoire, 2002).
174. Seabrook, Jungle Ways, 227.
175. Leiris describes "the anger of eleven of the twelve village people sent to dance at the Exposition coloniale (the twelfth and only content one was Endyali [Indiélou], Seabrook's informant, a student of the school and former representative of his father, who was "chef de Canton" of Bandiagara)." See L'Afrique fantôme, in Leiris, Miroir d'Airique, 228.
176. Les Dogon: Musique des masques et des funérailles (Paris: Inédit, 2006).
177. For information on the group AWA, see the Web site http://www. tellemvoyage.com/troupe.htm (accessed 17 June 2007).
178. Sékou Ogobara Dolo, La mère des masques: Un Dogon raconte, ed. Catherine Clément and Dorninique-Antoine Grisoni (Paris: Seuil, 2002).
179. For an earlier, neocolo-nial psychoanalytical study of members of the Dolo family, and especially Ogobara Dolo, see Fritz Mortenthaler, Paul Parin, and Goldy Parin-Matthey, Les Blancs pensent trop: 13 entretiens psychanalytiques avec les Dogon, translated from the German by Aude Willm (Paris: Payot, 1966).'
180. In a letter dated 20 June 1931, Rivière wrote to Leon Géraud that "your incomparable African artists inspired the general admiration of my colleagues." The same day he thanked Georges Spitz in a letter for allowing him to hear his "incomparable musicians." MdH, 2 AM 1 F Id/MdqB, document 15138.
181. Georges Henri Rivière and Paul Rivet to Marcel Olivier, 11 July 1931, MdH, 2 AM 1 F le/MdqB, document 15139.
182. Le monde coionial illustré 89 (January 1931)
183. quoted in Palà, "Adaptions, transformations, transgressions d'usage," 24.
184. René-Jean, "La monnaie de Paris et les souvenirs de l'Exposition Coloniale," Comœdia, 30 September 1931.
185. L'an vivant 151 (August 1931), 380.
186. Rivière, "Danses indigènes des colonies françaises."
187. "Courrier de l'Exposition Coloniale: Une soirée africaine au Palais de l'A.O.F.," Comœdia, 9 July 1931.
188. Bill Wells, "Divertissement colonial," Candide, 28 May 1931. Wells is referring to a performance on 22 May 1931.
189. Morand, Paris, Tombouctou, 143-44.
190. Ciarcia comments on the surrealist reception of Seabrook's novels in the years preceding the Exposition coloniale; see Ciarcia, De la mémoire ethnographique, 16-19.
191. See also Michel Leiris, "L'île magique," Documents 5 (1929): 334-35;
192. Leiris, "L'oeil de l'ethnographe," Documents 7 (1930): 404, 414;
193. and William Seabrook, "Le caput mortuum ou la femme de l'alchimiste," Documents 8 (1930): 461-66.
194. André Schaeffner, "Situation des musiciens dans trois sociétés africaines," Ethnologic II: Colloque international tenu à Wégimont [Liègei du 15 au 21 Septembre 1956, Les congrès et colloques de l'Université de Liège, vol. 19 (Liège: Université de Liège, 1956), 37.
195. See also Schaeffner, Le sistre et le hochet: Musique, théâtre et danse dans les sociétés africaines (Paris: Hermann, 1990).
196. Michel Leiris hints that he did not agree with Schaeffner's application of this terminology in Sally Price and Jean Jamin, "A Conversation with Michel Leiris," Current Anthropology 29, no. 1 (February 1988): 168.
197. Georges Bataille to Michel Leiris, July 1931, and Leiris to Bataille, 22 July 1931, in Échanges et correspondances, ed. Louis Yvert (Paris: Gallimard, 2004), 98-99.
198. See Géraud to Rivière, 27 October 1931 and 3 November 1931, and Rivière to Géraud, 5 November 1931, MdH, 2 AM 1 F 1d/MdqB, document 15138. This transaction stands out as the only time that Rivière negotiated directly with performers at the Exposition coloniale for their costumes. See also note 11.
199. Denise Paulme, "Quelques souvenirs," Cahiers d'études africaines 19 (1979): 10;
200. and Alice Byrne, "Comment devient-on ethnologue?" in "La quête d'une femme ethno-logue au coeur de l'Afrique Coloniale: Denise Paulme, 1909-1998" (Master's thesis, Université de Provence-Centre d'Aix, 2000), available online at http://www.up. univ-mrs.fr/∼wclio-af/ numero/6/thematique/chaplByrne.html (accessed 17 June 2007).
201. A large number of documents pertaining to Rivière's attempts to procure displayed objects from colonial administrators at the Exposition coloniale, including the official list of what he was allowed to take from the permanent exhibits at the French West African pavilion, are kept in MdH, 2 AM 1 F 1d/MdqB, document 15138.
202. See http://gallica.bnf.fr/VoyagesEnAfrique/ (accessed 17 June 2007).
203. Agbenyega Adedze, "In the Pursuit of Knowledge and Power: French Scientific Research in West Africa, 1938-65," Comparative Studies in South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 23 (2003): 335-44.
204. Jean Rouch with Germaine Dieterlin, Le Dama d'Ambara (1974);
205. and Jean-Paul Colleyn, Mali Kow (2000).
206. Sékou Ogohara Dolo explains that the Dogon "Socié té des masques" later adopted a practice of desacralizing masks to allow for tourist spectacle; a similar process was surely in place by 1931. See Sékou Ogobara Dolo, "Quand les masques s'expatri-ent," in La mere des masques, 208.
207. In L'Afrique fantôme, Michel Leiris describes how anxious individuals in the Bandiagara cliffs became when asked to sell or donate their masks to the French during the Mission Dakar-Dj ibouti in 1931. See, for example, his entries for 5 and 16 November, L'Afrique fantôme, in Miroir de l'Afrique, 255, 268.
208. See "Allocution de M. Nicolas SARKOZY, Président de la République, pronon-cée à l'Université de Dakar [26 July 2007];"
209. Achille Mbembe, "L'Afrique de Nicolas Sarkozy," Le Messager (Douala), 1 August 2004;
210. Mbembe, "France-Afrique: ces sottises qui divisent [10 August 2007],"
211. and Adame Ba Konaré, "Mali Appel aux Historiens: Adame Ba Konaré réagit au discours de Sarkozy," Les Echos (Bamako), 14 September 2007; all these articles are available online at http://www.ldh- toulon.net/spip.php?rubri-que131 (accessed 1 October 2007). This website also includes responses by Boubacar Boris Diop, Amadou Mactar Mbow, and others.
212. Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, "Reflections," unpublished commentary on the conference "Exhibiting Other: Museums of Mankind and the Politics of Cultural Representation," at Paris's Centre allemand d'histoire de l'art, 2000;
213. quoted in Nélia Dias, "Une place au Louvre," in Le
214. I have reconstructed this program from newspaper reviews; André́ Schaeffner's "La musique danse, les danseurs chantent," 106-07;
215. and Rivière's memo, 8 July 1931, MdH, 2 AM 1 F 1b/MdqB, document 15130.
216. The "sumptuous buffet" is described in "Danses africaines," Aux écoutes, 18 July 1931. In his handwritten memo, Rivière notes that Mr. Fournier catered the buffet, which cost 6,000 francs (400-600 people), with a supplement of 1,500 francs for the "champagne" (mousseux), and 10 percent staff costs (750) for a total of 8,250 Francs, rounded out to 8,500.