Blue (or purple) toe syndrome

Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology

Volumn 60, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 1-20

  Hirschmann, Jan V ^a   Raugi, Gregory J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMPHOTERICIN B DEOXYCHOLATE; ARGIPRESSIN; COLD AGGLUTININ; ERGOT ALKALOID; HYPERTENSIVE FACTOR; IMIPRAMINE; WARFARIN;

ACROCYANOSIS; ANTIPHOSPHOLIPID SYNDROME; ARTERY OCCLUSION; ARTERY PERFUSION; ATHEROSCLEROTIC PLAQUE; BACTERIAL ENDOCARDITIS; CALCINOSIS; CLINICAL FEATURE; COLD INJURY; CRYOGLOBULINEMIA; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; DISSEMINATED INTRAVASCULAR CLOTTING; ERGOTISM; GANGRENE; HUMAN; HYPERVISCOSITY SYNDROME; ISCHEMIA; KIDNEY DISEASE; LABORATORY TEST; LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS; MIGRAINE; MYXOMA; NONHUMAN; PANCREATITIS; PARAPROTEINEMIA; PHYSICAL EXAMINATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SKIN DEFECT; SKIN NECROSIS; THROMBOTIC THROMBOCYTOPENIC PURPURA; VASCULITIS; VEIN BLOOD FLOW;

EID: 57649170606     PISSN: 01909622     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jaad.2008.09.038     Document Type: Review

References (147)

1. Feder W., and Auerbach R. "Purple toes": an uncommon sequla of oral coumarin drug therapy. Ann Intern Med 55 (1961) 911-917
2. Karmody A.M., Powers S.R., Monaco V.J., and Leather R.P. "Blue toe" syndrome. An indication for limb salvage surgery. Arch Surg 111 (1976) 1263-1268
3. Kealy W.F. Atheroembolism. J Clin Pathol 31 (1978) 984-989
4. Cross S.S. How common is cholesterol embolism?. J Clin Pathol 44 (1991) 859-861
5. Moolenaar W., and Lamers C.B.H.W. Cholesterol crystal embolization in the Netherlands. A review of 842 cases filed in the Dutch National Pathology Information System from 1973 through 1994. Arch Intern Med 156 (1996) 653-657
6. Maurizi C.P., Barker A.E., and Trueheart R.E. Atheromatous emboli. A postmortem study with special reference to the lower extremities. Arch Pathol 86 (1968) 529-534
7. Ramirez G., O'Neill W.M., Lambert R., and Bloomer H.A. Cholesterol embolization. A complication of angiography. Arch Intern Med 138 (1978) 1430-1432
8. Handler F.P. Clinical and pathologic significance of atheromatous embolization, with emphasis on an etiology of renal hypertension. Am J Med 20 (1956) 366-373
9. Sieniewicz D.J., Moore S., Moir F.D., and McDade D.F. Atheromatous emboli to the kidneys. Radiology 92 (1969) 1231-1240
10. Thurlbeck W.M., and Castleman B. Atheromatous emboli to the kidneys after aortic surgery. N Engl J Med 257 (1957) 442-447
11. Flory C. Arterial occlusions produced by emboli from eroded aortic atheromatous plaques. Am J Pathol 21 (1945) 549-565
12. Blauth C.I., Cosgrove D.M., Webb B.W., Ratliff N.B., Boylan M., Piedmonte M.R., et al. Atheroembolism from the ascending aorta. An emerging problem in cardiac surgery. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 103 (1992) 1104-1111
13. Keeley E.C., and Grines C.L. Scraping of aortic debris by coronary guiding catheters. A prospective evaluation of 1000 cases. J Am Coll Cardiol 32 (1998) 1861-1865
14. Drost H., Buis B., Haan D., and Hillers J.A. Cholesterol embolism as a complication of left heart catheterization. Report of seven cases. Br Heart J 52 (1984) 339-342
15. Frock J., Bierman M., Hammeke M., and Reyes A. Atheroembolic renal disease: experience with 22 patients. Nebr Med J 79 (1994) 317-321
16. Colt H.G., Begg R.J., Saporito J.J., Cooper W.M., and Shapiro A.P. Cholesterol emboli after cardiac catheterization. Eight cases and a review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore) 67 (1988) 389-400
17. Fukumoto Y., Tsutsui H., Tsuchihashi M., and Masumoto A. Takeshita A, for the Cholesterol Embolism Study (CHEST) Investigators. The incidence and risk of cholesterol embolization syndrome, a complication of cardiac catheterization: a prospective study. J Am Coll Cardiol 42 (2003) 211-216
18. Jucgla A., Moreso F., Muniesa C., Moreno A., and Vidaller A. Cholesterol embolism: still an unrecognized entity with a high mortality rate. J Am Acad Dermatol 55 (2006) 786-793
19. Scolari F., Ravani P., Gaggi R., Santostefano M., Rollino C., Stabellini N., et al. The challenge of diagnosing atheroembolic renal disease: clinical features and prognostic factors. Circulation 116 (2007) 298-304
20. Rosman H.S., Davis T.P., Reddy D., and Goldstein S. Cholesterol embolization: clinical findings and implications. J Am Coll Cardiol 15 (1990) 1296-1299
21. Gibbs M.B., English J.C., and Zirwas M.J. Livedo reticularis: an update. J Am Acad Dermatol 52 (2005) 1009-1019
22. Fleischer A.B., and Resnick S.D. Livedo reticularis. Dermatol Clin 8 (1990) 347-354
23. Chaudhary K., Wall B.M., and Rasberry R.D. Livedo reticularis: an underutilized diagnostic clue in cholesterol embolization syndrome. Am J Med Sci 321 (2001) 348-351
24. Sheehan M.G., Condemi J.J., and Rosenfeld S.I. Position dependent livedo reticularis in cholesterol emboli syndrome. J Rheumatol 20 (1993) 1973-1974
25. Falanga V., Fine M.J., and Kapoor W.N. The cutaneous manifestations of cholesterol crystal embolization. Arch Dermatol 122 (1986) 1194-1198
26. Donohue K.G., Saap L., and Falanga V. Cholesterol crystal embolization: an atherosclerotic disease with frequent and varied cutaneous manifestations. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 17 (2003) 504-511
27. Dahlberg P.J., Frecentese D.F., and Cogbill T.H. Cholesterol embolism: experience with 22 histologically proven cases. Surgery 105 (1989) 737-746
28. Turakhia A.K., and Khan M.A. Splinter hemorrhages as a possible clinical manifestation of cholesterol crystal embolization. J Rheumatol 17 (1990) 1083-1086
29. Scolari F., Tardanico R., Zani R., Pola A., Viola B.F., Movilli E., et al. Cholesterol crystal embolization: a recognizable cause of renal disease. Am J Kid Dis 36 (2000) 1089-1109
30. Lye W.C., Cheah J.S., and Sinniah R. Renal cholesterol embolic disease. Case report and review of the literature. Am J Nephrol 13 (1993) 489-493
31. Wilson D.M., Salazer T.L., and Farkouh M.E. Eosinophiluria in atheroembolic renal disease. Am J Med 91 (1991) 186-189
32. Fine M.J., Kapoor W., and Falanga V. Cholesterol crystal embolization: a review of 221 cases in the English literature. Angiology 38 (1987) 769-784
33. Thadani R.I., Carmago Jr. C.A., Xavier R.J., Fang L.S., and Bazari H. Atheroembolic renal failure after invasive procedures. Natural history based on 52 histologically proven cases. Medicine (Baltimore) 74 (1995) 350-358
34. Haqqie S.S., Urizar R.E., and Singh J. Nephrotic-range proteinuria in renal atheroembolic disease: report of four cases. Am J Kid Dis 28 (1996) 493-501
35. Thériault J., Agharazzi M., Dumont M., Pichette V., Ouimet D., and Leblanc M. Atheroembolic renal failure requiring dialysis: potential for renal recovery? A review of 43 cases. Nephron Clin Pract 94 (2003) c11-c18
36. Belenfant X., Meyrier A., and Jacquot C. Supportive treatment improves survival in multivisceral cholesterol crystal embolization. Am J Kidney Dis 33 (1999) 840-850
37. Ben-Horin S., Bardan E., Barshack I., Zaks N., and Livneh A. Cholesterol crystal embolization to the digestive system: characterization of common, yet overlooked presentation of atheroembolism. Am J Gastroenterol 98 (2003) 1471-1479
38. Mayo R.R., and Swartz R.D. Redefining the incidence of clinically detectable atheroembolism. Am J Med 100 (1996) 524-529
39. Moolenaar W., and Lamers C.B.H.W. Cholesterol crystal embolization to liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. Dig Dis Sci 41 (1996) 1819-1822
40. Hollenhorst R.W. Significance of bright plaques in the retinal arterioles. JAMA 178 (1961) 123-129
41. Gittinger J.W., and Kershaw G.R. Retinal cholesterol emboli in the diagnosis of renal atheroembolism. Arch Intern Med 158 (1998) 1265-1267
42. Slavin R.E., Gonzalez-Vitale J.C., and Marin O.S.M. Atheromatous emboli to the lumbosacral spinal cord. Stroke 6 (1975) 411-416
43. Bendixen B.H., Younger D.S., Hair L.S., Gutierrez C., Meyers M.L., Homma S., et al. Cholesterol emboli neuropathy. Neurology 42 (1992) 428-430
44. Sabatine M.S., Oelberg D.A., Mark E.J., and Kanarek D. Pulmonary cholesterol crystal embolization. Chest 112 (1997) 1687-1692
45. Cappiello R.A., Espinoza L.R., Adelman H., Aguilar J., Vasey F.B., and Germain B.F. Cholesterol embolism: a pseudovasculitic syndrome. Semin Arthritis Rheum 18 (1989) 240-246
46. Kasimath B.S., Corwin H.L., Bidani A.K., Korbet S.M., Schwartz M.M., and Lewis E.J. Eosinophilia in the diagnosis of atheroembolic renal disease. Am J Nephrol 7 (1987) 173-177
47. Lie J.T. Cholesterol atheromatous embolism. The great masquerader revisited. Pathol Annu 27 part 2 (1992) 17-50
48. Pennington M., Yeager J., Skelton H., and Smith K.J. Cholesterol embolization syndrome: cutaneous histopathological features and the variable onset of symptoms in patients with different risk factors. Br J Dermatol 146 (2002) 511-517
49. Qvarfordt P.G., Reilly L.M., Sedwitz M.M., Ehrenfeld W.K., and Stoney R.J. "Coral reef" atherosclerosis of the suprarenal aorta: a unique clinical entity. J Vasc Surg 1 (1984) 903-909
50. Shulte K.M., Reiher L., Grabitz K., and Sandmann W. Coral reef aorta: a long-term study of 21 patients. Ann Vasc Surg 14 (2000) 626-633
51. Rosenberg G.D., and Killewich L.A. Blue toe syndrome from a "coral reef" aorta. Ann Vasc Surg 9 (1995) 951-954
52. Reynen K. Cardiac myxomas. N Engl J Med 333 (1995) 1610-1617
53. Navarro P.H., Bravo F.P., and Beltran G.G. Atrial myxoma with livedoid macules as its sole cutaneous manifestation. J Am Acad Dermatol 32 (1995) 881-883
54. Greeson D.M., Wright J.E., and Zanolli M.D. Cutaneous findings associated with cardiac myxoma. Cutis 62 (1998) 275-280
55. McWhirter W.R., and Tetteh-Lartey E.V. A case of atrial myxoma. Br Heart J 36 (1974) 839-840
56. Thalheimer A., Fein M., Geissinger E., and Franke S. Intimal angiosarcoma of the aorta: report of a case and review of the literature. J Vasc Surg 40 (2004) 548-553
57. Rudd R.J., Fair K.P., and Patterson J.W. Aortic angiosarcoma presenting with cutaneous metastasis: case report and review of the literature. J Am Acad Dermatol 43 5 part 2 (2000) 930-933
58. Kerr A. Subacute bacterial endocarditis (1955), Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL p. 101-17
59. Farrior J.B., and Silverman M.E. A consideration of the differences between a Janeway's lesion and an Osler's node in infectious endocarditis. Chest 70 (1976) 239-242
60. Vinson R.P., Chung A., Elston D.M., and Keller R.A. Septic microemboli in a Janeway lesion of bacterial endocarditis. J Am Acad Dermatol 35 (1996) 984-985
61. Parikh S.K., Lieberman A., Colbert D.A., Silvers D.N., and Grossman M.E. The identification of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Osler's nodes and Janeway lesions of acute bacterial endocarditis. J Am Acad Dermatol 35 (1996) 767-768
62. Alpert J.S., Krous H.F., Dalen J.E., O'Rourke R.A., and Bloor C.M. Pathogenesis of Osler's nodes. Ann Intern Med 85 (1976) 471-473
63. Kerr A., and Tan J. Biopsies of the Janeway lesion of infective endocarditis. J Cutan Pathol 6 (1979) 124-129
64. Cardullo A.C., Silvers D.N., and Grossman M.E. Janeway lesions and Osler's nodes: a review of the histopathologic findings. J Am Acad Dermatol 22 (1990) 1088-1090
65. Gil M.P., Velasco M., Botella R., Valasco M., Botella R., Ballester J.E., et al. Janeway lesions: differential diagnosis with Osler's nodes. Int J Dermatol 32 (1993) 673-674
66. Lopez J.A., Ross R.S., Fishbein M.C., and Siegel R.J. Nonbacterial thrombotic endocarditis. Am Heart J 113 (1987) 773-784
67. Eiken P.W., Edwards W.D., Tazelaar H.D., McBane R.D., and Zehr K.J. Surgical pathology of nonbacterial thrombotic endocarditis in 30 patients, 1985-2000. Mayo Clin Proc 76 (2001) 1204-1212
68. Reisner S.A., Brenner B., Haimi N., Edoute Y., and Markiewicz W. Echocardiography in nonbacterial thrombotic endocarditis: from autopsy to clinical entity. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 13 (2000) 876-881
69. Roldan C.A., Shively B.K., and Crawford M.H. An echocardiographic study of valvular heart disease associated with systemic lupus erythematosus. N Engl J Med 335 (1996) 1424-1430
70. Kimyai-Asadi A., Usman A., and Milani F. Cutaneous manifestations of marantic endocarditis. Int J Dermatol 39 (2000) 290-292
71. Miyakis S., Lockshin M.D., Atsumi T., Branch D.W., Brey R.L., Cervera R., et al. International consensus statement on an update of the classification criteria for definite antiphospholipid syndrome. J Thromb Haemost 4 (2006) 295-306
72. Cervera R., Piette J.C., Font J., Khamashta M.A., Shoenfeld Y., Camps M.T., et al. Antiphospholipid syndrome. Clinical and immunologic manifestations and patterns of disease expression in a cohort of 1000 patients. Arthritis Rheum 46 (2002) 1019-1027
73. Frances C., Niang S., Laffitte E., Le Pelletier F., Costedoat N., and Piette J.C. Dermatologic manifestations of the antiphospholipid syndrome. Two hundred consecutive cases. Arthritis Rheum 52 (2005) 1785-1793
74. Diogenes M.J.N., Diogenes P.C.N., Morais Carneiro R.M., Ribeiro Neto C.C., Duarte F.B., and Holanda R.R.A. Cutaneous manifestations associated with antiphospholipid antibodies. Int J Dermatol 43 (2004) 632-637
75. Davies G.E., and Triplett D.A. Corticosteroid-associated blue toe syndrome: role of antiphospholipid antibodies. Ann Intern Med 113 (1990) 893-895
76. De Cuypere E., Peerlinck K., Verhaeghe R., Vanrusselt M., Arnout J., and Vermylen J. A vitamin K antagonist rapidly reverses a blue toe syndrome in a patient with lupus anticoagulant and antiprothrombin antibodies. Acta Clin Belg 57 (2002) 74-78
77. Nahass G.T. Antiphospholipid antibodies and the antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. J Am Acad Dermatol 36 (1997) 149-168
78. Grob J.J., San Marco M., Aillaud M.F., Andrac L., Gabriel B., Juhan-Vague I., et al. Unfading acral microlivedo. A discrete marker of thrombotic skin disease associated with antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. J Am Acad Dermatol 24 (1991) 53-58
79. Eng A.M. Cutaneous expressions of antiphospholipid syndromes. Sem Thromb Hemost 20 (1994) 71-78
80. Merrill J.T., and Asherson R.A. Catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome. Nat Clin Pract Rheumatol 2 (2006) 81-89
81. Asherson R.A., Cervera R., Piette J.C., Shoenfeld Y., Espinosa G., Petri M.A., et al. Catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome: clues to the pathogenesis from a series of 80 patients. Medicine (Baltimore) 80 (2001) 355-377
82. Asherson R.A., Cervera R., De Groot P.G., Erkan D., Boffa M.C., Piette J.C., et al. Catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome: international consensus statement on classification criteria and treatment guidelines. Lupus 12 (2003) 530-534
83. Poszepczynska-Guigne E., Viguier M., Chosidow O., Orcel B., Emmerich J., and Dubertret L. Paraneoplastic acral vascular syndrome: epidemiologic features, clinical manifestations, and disease sequelae. J Am Acad Dermatol 47 (2002) 47-52
84. Rock G.A. Management of thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura. Br J Haematol 109 (2000) 496-507
85. George J.N. Evaluation and management of patients with thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura. J Intensive Care Med 22 (2007) 82-91
86. Chang J.C., and Ikhlaque N. Peripheral digit ischemic syndrome can be a manifestation of postoperative thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura. Ther Apher Dial 8 (2004) 413-418
87. Levi M. Current understanding of disseminated intravascular coagulation. Br J Haematol 124 (2004) 567-576
88. Robboy S.J., Mihm M.C., Colman R.W., and Minna J.D. The skin in disseminated intravascular coagulation. Prospective analysis of thirty-six cases. Br J Dermatol 88 (1973) 221-229
89. Davis M.D.P., Dy K.M., and Nelson S. Presentation and outcome of purpura fulminans associated with peripheral gangrene in 12 patients at Mayo Clinic. J Am Acad Dermatol 57 (2007) 944-956
90. Chan Y.C., Valenti D., Mansfield A.O., and Stansby G. Warfarin induced skin necrosis. Br J Surg 87 (2000) 266-272
91. Essex D.W., Wynn S.S., and Jin D.K. Late-onset warfarin-induced skin necrosis: case report and review of the literature. Am J Hematol 57 (1998) 233-237
92. Stone M.S., and Rosen T. Acral purpura: an unusual sign of coumarin necrosis. J Am Acad Dermatol 14 5 part 1 (1986) 797-802
93. Lewis T., and Landis E.M. Observations upon the vascular mechanism in acrocyanosis. Heart 15 (1930) 229-246
94. Strumia R. Dermatologic signs in patients with eating disorders. Am J Clin Dermatol 6 (2005) 165-173
95. Jacob J.R., Weisman M.H., Rosenblatt S.I., and Bookstein J.J. Chronic pernio. A historical perspective of cold-induced vascular disease. Arch Intern Med 146 (1986) 1589-1592
96. Goette D.K. Chilblains (perniosis). J Am Acad Dermatol 23 (1990) 257-262
97. Spittell J.A., and Spittell P.C. Chronic pernio: another cause of blue toes. Int Angiol 11 (1992) 46-50
98. Viguier M., Pinquier L., Cavelier-Balloy B., Salmoniere P., Cordoliani F., Flageul B., et al. Clinical and histopathologic features and immunologic variables in patients with severe chilblains. A study of the relationship to lupus erythematosus. Medicine (Baltimore) 80 (2001) 180-188
99. Hutchinson J. Harveian lectures on lupus. The varieties of common lupus. Br Med J 1 (1888) 58-63
100. Millard L.G., and Rowell N.R. Chilblain lupus erythematosus (Hutchinson). Br J Dermatol 98 (1978) 497-506
101. Su W.P.D., Perniciaro C., Rogers R.S., and White J.W. Chilblain lupus erythematosus (lupus pernio): clinical review of the Mayo Clinic experience and proposal of diagnostic criteria. Cutis 54 (1994) 395-399
102. Doutre M.S., Beylot C., Beylot J., Pompougnac E., and Royer P. Chilblain lupus erythematosus: report of 15 cases. Dermatology 184 (1992) 26-28
103. Franceschini F., Calzavara-Pinton P., Quinzanini M., Cavaazzana I., Bettoni L., Zane C., et al. Chilblain lupus erythematosus is associated with antibodies to SSA/Ro. Lupus 8 (1999) 215-219
104. Cribier B., Djeridi N., Peltre B., and Grosshans E. A histologic and immunohistochemical study of chilblains. J Am Acad Dermatol 45 (2001) 924-929
105. Crowson A.N., and Magro C.M. Idiopathic perniosis and its mimics: a clinical and histological study of 38 cases. Hum Pathol 28 (1997) 478-484
106. Ozaras R., Yemisen M., Mete B., Mert A., Ozturk R., and Tabak F. Acrocyanosis developed with amphotericin B deoxycholate but not with amphotericin B lipid complex. Mycoses 50 (2007) 242
107. Anderson R.P., and Morris B.A.P. Acrocyanosis due to imipramine. Arch Dis Child 63 (1988) 204-205
108. Borovoy M., and Beresh A.S. Transient vasospasm. The blue toe. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc 75 (1985) 656-657
109. Dunser M.W., Mayr A.J., Tur A., Pajk W., Barbara F., Knotzer H., et al. Ischemic skin lesions as a complication of continuous vasopressin infusion in catecholamine-resistant vasodilatory shock: incidence and risk factors. Crit Care Med 31 (2003) 1394-1398
110. Park J.Y., Kanzler M., and Swetter S.M. Dopamine-associated symmetric peripheral gangrene. Arch Dermatol 133 (1997) 247-249
111. McAllister S.F., and Cleary J.D. Blue digits: cyanosis resulting from norepinephrine treatment. Ann Pharmacother 39 (2005) 383-384
112. Hayes M.A., Yau E.H.S., Hinds C.J., and Watson J.D. Symmetrical peripheral gangrene: association with noradrenaline administration. Intensive Care Med 18 (1992) 433-436
113. Kalajian A.H., Turpen K.B., Donovan K.O., Malone J.C., and Callen J.P. Phenylephrine-induced microvascular occlusion syndrome in a patient with a heterozygous factor V Leiden mutation. Arch Dermatol 143 (2007) 1314-1317
114. Zavaleta E.G., Fernandez B.B., Grove M.K., and Kaye M.D. St. Anthony's fire (ergotamine induced leg ischemia). A case report and review of the literature. Angiology 52 (2001) 349-356
115. Federman D.G., Valdivia M., and Kirsner R.S. Syphilis presenting as the "Blue Toe Syndrome.". Arch Intern Med 154 (1994) 1029-1031
116. King R., Crowson A.N., Murray E., and Magro C.M. Acral purpuric papulonodular lesions as a manifestation of Behçet's disease. Int J Dermatol 34 (1995) 190-192
117. Guldbakke K.K., and Khachemoune A. Calciphylaxis. Int J Dermatol 46 (2007) 231-238
118. Weenig R.H., Sewell L.D., Davis M.D.P., McCarthy J.T., and Pittelkow M.R. Caliciphylaxis: natural history, risk factor analysis, and outcome. J Am Acad Dermatol 56 (2007) 569-579
119. Wilmer W.A., and Magro C.M. Calciphylaxis: emerging concepts in prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Semin Dial 15 (2002) 172-186
120. Anderson D.C., Stewart W.K., and Piercy D.M. Calcifying panniculitis with fat and skin necrosis in a case of uraemia with autonomous hyperparathyroidism. Lancet 2 (1968) 323-325
121. Essary L.R., and Wick M.R. Cutaneous calciphylaxis. An underrecognized clinicopathologic entity. Am J Clin Pathol 113 (2000) 280-287
122. Hirschmann J.V. Ischemic forms of acute venous thrombosis. Arch Dermatol 123 (1987) 933-936
123. Perkins J.M.T., Magee T.R., and Galland R.B. Phlegmasia cerulea dolens and venous gangrene. Br J Surg 83 (1996) 19-23
124. Bhatt S., Wehbe C., and Dogra V.S. Phlegmasia cerulea dolens. J Clin Ultrasound 35 (2007) 401-404
125. Gertz M.A., and Kyle R.A. Hyperviscosity syndrome. J Intensive Care Med 10 (1995) 128-141
126. Kwaan H.C., and Bongu A. The hyperviscosity syndromes. Semin Thromb Hemost 25 (1999) 199-208
127. McGrath M.A., Tracy G.D., Lord R.S.A., and Penny R. Peripheral ischemia caused by blood hyperviscosity. Aust N Z J Surg 43 (1973) 109-113
128. Tefferi A., and Vardiman J.W. Classification and diagnosis of myeloproliferative neoplasms: the 2008 World Health Organization criteria and point-of-care diagnostic algorithms. Leukemia 22 (2008) 14-22
129. Michiels J.J., Berneman Z.N., Schroyens W., and Urk H. Pathophysiology and treatment of platelet-mediated microvascular disturbances, major thrombosis and bleeding complications in essential thrombocythaemia and polycythaemia vera. Platelets 15 (2004) 67-84
130. Itin P.H., and Winkelmann R.K. Cutaneous manifestations in patients with essential thrombocythemia. J Am Acad Dermatol 24 (1991) 59-63
131. Fagrell B., and Mellstedt H. Polycythemia vera as a cause of ischemic digital necrosis. Acta Chir Scand 144 (1978) 129-132
132. Belizna C.C., Tron F., Joly P., Godin M., Hamidou M., and Lévesque H. Outcome of essential cryofibrinogenaemia in a series of 61 patients. Rheumatology (Oxford) 47 (2008) 205-206
133. Blain H., Cacoub P., Musset L., Costedoat-Chalumeau N., Silberstein C., Chosidow O., et al. Cryofibrinogenaemia: a study of 49 patients. Clin Exp Immunol 120 (2000) 253-260
134. Ireland T.A., Werner D.A., Rietschel R.L., Patterson J.H., and Spraker M.K. Cutaneous lesions in cryofibrinogenemia. J Pediatr 105 (1984) 67-69
135. Burruss J.B., Fabre V.C., and Callen J.P. Painful acral purpuric nodules. Arthritis Rheum 37 (1994) 1812-1813
136. Martin S. Cryofibrinogenemia, monoclonal gammopathy, and purpura. Arch Dermatol 115 (1979) 208-211
137. Amdo T.D., and Welker J.A. An approach to the diagnosis and treatment of cryofibrinogenemia. Am J Med 116 (2004) 332-337
138. Beightler E., Diven D.G., Sanchez R.L., and Solomon A.R. Thrombotic vasculopathy associated with cryofibrinogenemia. J Am Acad Dermatol 24 (1991) 342-345
139. Dispenzieri A., and Gorevic P.D. Cryoglobulinemia. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 13 (1999) 1315-1349
140. Tedeschi A., Barate C., Minola E., and Morra E. Cryoglobulinemia. Blood Rev 21 (2007) 183-200
141. Trejo O., Ramos-Casals M., Garcia-Carrasco M., Yague J., Jimenez S., Red G., et al. Cryoglobulinemia. Study of etiologic factors and clinical and immunologic features in 443 patients from a single center. Medicine (Baltimore) 80 (2001) 252-262
142. Ferri C., Sebastaiani M., Giuggioli D., Cazzato M., Longombardo G., Antonelli A., et al. Mixed cryoglobulinemia: demographic, clinical, and serologic features and survival in 231 patients. Semin Arthritis Rheum 33 (2004) 355-374
143. Cohen S.J., Pittelkow M.R., and Su W.P.D. Cutaneous manifestations of cryoglobulinemia: clinical and histopathologic study of seventy-two patients. J Am Acad Dermatol 25 (1991) 21-27
144. Fang J.T., and Huang C.C. Blue toe syndrome associated with rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis: ultimately revealed essential mixed cryoglobulinemia. Renal Failure 19 (1997) 177-181
145. Berentsen S., Ulvestad E., Langholm R., Beiske K., Hjorth-Hansen H., Ghanima W., et al. Primary chronic cold agglutinin disease: a population based clinical study of 86 patients. Haematologica 91 (2006) 460-466
146. Berentsen S., Beiske K., and Tjonnfjord G.E. Primary chronic cold agglutinin disease: an update on pathogenesis, clinical features, and therapy. Hematology 12 (2007) 361-370
147. Sinha A., Richardson G., and Patel R.T. Cold agglutinin related acrocyanosis and paroxysmal haemolysis. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 30 (2005) 563-565