Sensors for physical fluxes at the sea surface: Energy, heat, water, salt

Ocean Science

Volumn 4, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 247-263

  Weller, R A ^a   Bradley, E F ^b   Edson, J B ^c   Fairall, C W ^d   Brooks, I ^e   Yelland, M J ^f   Pascal, R W ^f  

^a WOODS HOLE OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTITUTION   (United States)

^b CSIRO   (Australia)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT   (United States)

^d NOAA EARTH SYSTEM RESEARCH LABORATORY   (United States)

^e UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS   (United Kingdom)

^f NATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHY CENTRE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DISSIPATION; EDDY COVARIANCE; FLUX MEASUREMENT; INSTRUMENTATION; MARINE TECHNOLOGY; PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT; RAINGAUGE; SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE; UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS; WAVE FORCE;

EID: 57549086889     PISSN: 18120784     EISSN: 18120792     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/os-4-247-2008     Document Type: Article

References (70)

1. Anderson, S. P. and Baumgartner, M. F.: Radiative heating errors in naturally ventilated air temperature measurements made from buoys, J. Atmos. Oceanic. Tech., 15, 157-173, 1998.
2. Barton, I. J., Minnett, P. J., Maillet, K. A., Donlon, C. J., Hook, S. J., Jessup, A. T., and Nightingale, T. J.: The Miami2001 infrared radiometer calibration and intercomparison, Part II: shipboard results. J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 21, 268-283, 2004.
3. Bradley, E. F. and Fairall, C. W.: A guide to making climate quality meteorological and flux measurements at sea, NOAA Technical Memorandum OAR PSD-311, Earth System Research Laboratory, Boulder, CO, 2007.
4. Brown, E. N., Friehe C. A., and Lenschow, D. H.: The use of pressure fluctuations on the nose of an aircraft for measuring air motion, J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 22, 171-180, 1983.
5. Crawford, T. L. and Dobosy, R. J.: A sensitive fast-response probe to measure turbulence and heat flux from any airplane, Bound.-Layer Meteor., 59, 257-278, 1992.
6. Colbo, K. and Weller, R. A.: The accuracy of the IMET sensor package in the subtropics, J. Atmos. Ocanic. Tech., in review, 2008.
7. de Leeuw, G., Moerman, M. M., Zappa, C. J., McGillis, W. R., Norris, S. J. and Smith, M. H.: Eddy Correlation Measurements of Sea Spray Aerosol Fluxes, in: Transport at the Air Sea Interface, edited by: Garbe, C. S., Handler, R. A. and Jahne, B., Springer-Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg, 2007.
8. Dickey, T., Manov, D., Weller, R., and Siegel, D.: Determination of longwave net heat flux at the air-sea interface using measurements from buoy platforms, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 1, 1057-1078, 1994.
9. Donlon, C. J., Minnett, P. J., Gentemann, C., Nightingale, T. J., Barton, I. J., Ward, B., and Murray, M. J.: Towards improved validation of satellite sea surface skin temperature measurements for climate research, J. Climate, 15, 353-369, 2002.
10. Drennan, W. M., Taylor, P. K., and Yelland, M. J.: Parameterizing the sea surface roughness, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 35, 835-848, 2005.
11. Dupuis, H., Guerin, C., Hauser, D., Weill, A., Nacass, P., Drennan, W. M., Cloche, S., and Graber, H. C.: Impact of flow distortion corrections on turbulent fluxes estimated by the inertial dissipation method during the FETCH experiment on R/V L'Atalante, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 8064, doi:10.1029/ 2001JC001075, 2003.
12. Eckman, R. M., Dobosy, R. J., Auble, D. L., Strong, T. W., and Crawford, T. L.: A pressure-sphere anemometer for measuring turbulence and fluxes in hurricanes, J. Atmos. Oceanic. Tech., 24, 994-1007, 2007.
13. Edson, J. B., Fairall, C. W., Larsen, S. E., and Mestayer, P. G.: A study of the inertial-dissipation technique for computing airsea fluxes, J. Geophys. Res., 96, 10689-10711, 1991.
14. Edson, J. B. and Fairall, C. W.: Similarity relationships in the marine atmospheric surface layer for terms in the TKE and scalar variance budgets. J. Atmos. Sci., 55, 2311-2328, 1998.
15. Edson, J. B., Hinton, A. A., Prada, K. E., Hare, J. E., and Fairall, C. W.: Direct covariance flux estimates from mobile platforms at sea, J. Atmos. Oceanic. Tech., 15, 547-562, 1998.
16. Edson, J. B.: Sensors for micrometeorological flux measurements, in: Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences, vol. 5, edited by: Steele, J., Thorpe, S., and Turekian, K., Academic Press, London, pp. 2751-2759, 2001.
17. Emanuel, K. A.: Sensitivity of tropical cyclones to surface exchange coefficients and a revised steady-state model incorporating eye dynamics, J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 3969-3976, 1995.
18. Fairall, C. W. and Larsen, S. E.: Inertial-dissipation methods and turbulent fluxes at the air-ocean interface, Boundary-Layer Meteor., 34, 287-301, 1986.
19. Fairall, C. W., Bradley, E. F., Godfrey, J. S., Wick, G. A., Edson, J. B., and Young, G. S.: The cool skin and the warm layer in bulk flux calculations, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 1295-1308, 1996a.
20. Fairall, C. W., Bradley, E. F., Rogers, D. P., Edson, J. B., and Young, G. S.: Bulk parameterization of air-sea fluxes for TOGA COARE, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 3747-3764, 1996b.
21. Fairall, C. W., White, A. B., Edson, J. B., and Hare, J. E.: Integrated shipboard measurements of the marine boundary layer, J. Atmos. Oceanic Tech., 14, 338-359, 1997.
22. Fairall, C. W., Persson, P. O. G., Bradley, E. F., Payne, R. E., and Anderson, S.: A new look at calibration and use of Eppley Precision Infrared Radiometers, Part I: Theory and application, J. Atmos. Oceanic Tech., 15, 1229-1242, 1998.
23. Fairall, C. W., Bradley, E. F., Hare, J. E., Grachev, A. A., and Edson, J. B.: Bulk parameterization of air-sea fluxes: Updates and verification of the COARE algorithm, J. Climate, 16, 571-591, 2003.
24. Frederikson, P. A., Davidson, K. L., and Edson, J. B.: A study of wind stress determination methods from a ship and offshore tower, J. Atmos. Oceanic. Tech., 14, 822-834, 1997.
25. Frolilich, C.: History of radiometry and the World Radiometric Reference, Metrologia, 28, 111-115, 1991.
26. Geever, M. C., O'Dowd, D., van Ekeren, S., Flanagan, R., Nilsson, E. D., de Leeuw, G., and Rannik, Ü.: Submicron sea spray fluxes, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L15810, doi:10.1029/2005GL023081, 2005.
27. Gosnell, R., Webster, P. J., and Fairall, C. W.: The sensible heat flux due to rain in TOGA COARE, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 18437-18442, 1995.
28. Hare, J., Bradley, E. F., and Fairall, C. W.: Rainfall measurements on the R/V Ronald H. Brown during EPIC2001, Proc. AGU Fall Meeting, San Francisco, CA, USA, 2002.
29. Hasse, L., Grossklaus, M., Uhlig, K., and Timm, P.: A ship rain gauge for use in high winds. J. Atmos. Oceanic. Tech., 15, 380-386, 1998.
30. Hill, M. K., Brooks, B. J., Norris, S. J., Smith, M. H., Brooks, I. M., and de Leeuw, G.: Compact Lightweight Aerosol Spectrometer Probe (CLASP), J. Atmos. Oceanic. Tech., 25,(11), 1996-2006, 2008.
31. Janssen, P. A. E. M.: On the effect of ocean waves on the kinetic energy balance and consequences for the inertial dissipation technique, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 29, 530-534, 1999.
32. Ji, Q. and Tsay, S.-C.: On the dome effect of Eppley pyrgeometers and pyranometers, Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 971-974, 2000.
33. Lange, B., Johnson, H. K., Larsen, S., Hojstrup, J., Kofoed-Hansen H., and Yelland, M. J.: On detection of a wave age dependency for the sea surface roughness, J. Phys. Oceanog., 34, 1441-1458, 2004.
34. Large, W. G., Morzel, J., and Crawford, G. B.: Accounting for surface wave distortion of the marine wind profile in low-level ocean storm wind measurements, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 25, 2959-2971, 1995.
35. Large, W. G. and Pond, S.: Open ocean momentum flux measurements in moderate to strong winds, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 11, 324-336, 1981.
36. Larsen, S. E., Edson, J. B., Fairall, C. W., and Mestayer, P. G.: Measurement of temperature spectra by a sonic anemometer, J. Atmos. Oceanic Tech., 10, 345-354, 1993.
37. Lewis, E. R. and Schwartz, S. E.: Sea Salt Aerosol Production -Mechanisms, Methods, Measurements, and Models, American Geophysical Union, 413 pp., 2004.
38. Miller, M. J., Beljaars, A. C. M., and Palmer, T. M.: The sensitivity of the ECMWF model to the parameterization of evaporation from the tropical oceans, J. Climate, 5, 418-434, 1992.
39. Moat, B. I., Yelland, M. J., Pascal, R. W., and Molland, A. F.: An overview of the airflow distortion at anemometer sites on ships, Int. J. Climatol., 25, 997-1006, 2005
40. Nilsson, E. D., Rannik, Ü., Swietlicki, E., Leek, C., Aalto, P. P., Zhou, J., and Norman, M.: Turbulent aerosol fluxes over the Arctic Ocean: 2. Wind driven sources from the sea, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 32 139-32 154, 2001.
41. Nilsson, E. D., Mårtensson, E. M., van Ekeren, J. J., de Leeuw, G., Moerman, M., and O'Dowd, C. D.: Primary marine aerosol emissions: size resolved eddy covariance measurements of the sea salt and organic carbon fractions, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 7, 13 345-13400, 2007, http://www.atmos-ehem-phys- discuss.net/7/13345/2007/.
42. Norris, S. J., Brooks, I. M., de Leeuw, G., Smith, M. H., Moerman, M., and Lingard, J. J. N.: Eddy covariance measurements of sea spray particles over the Atlantic Ocean, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 555-563, 2008, http://www.atmos-chem- phys.net/8/555/2008/.
43. Nystuen, J. A., McPhaden, M. J., and Freitag, H. P.: Surface measurements of precipitation from an ocean mooring: The underwater acoustic log from the South China Sea, J. Appl. Meteor., 39, 2182-2197, 2000.
44. Ohlman, J. C., Siegel, D. A., and Mobley, C. D.: Ocean radiant heating. Part I: Optical influences, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 30, 1833-1848, 2000.
45. Ohlman, J. C. and Siegel, D. A.: Ocean radiant heating. Part II: Parameterizing solar radiation transmission through the upper ocean, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 30, 1849-1865, 2000.
46. Oost, W. A. E., Worrell, W. H., Schaap, J. W., van Oort, C., and Kraan, C.: An improved version of the pressure anemometer, J. Atmos. Oceanic. Tech., 8, 575-584, 1991.
47. Pascal, R. W. and Josey, S. A.: Accurate Radiometric Measurement of the Atmospheric Longwave Flux at the Sea Surface, J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 17, 1271-1282, 2000.
48. Payne, R. E.: Albedo of the sea surface, J. Atmos. Sci., 29, 959-970, 1972.
49. Payne, R. E. and Anderson, S. P.: A new look at calibration and use of Eppley Precision Infrared Radiometers. Part II. Calibration and use of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Improved Meteorology Precision Infrared Radiometer, J. Atmos. Oceanic Tech., 16, 739-751, 1999.
50. Popinet, S., Smith, M., and Stevens, C.: Experimental and numerical study of the turbulence characteristics of airflow around a research vessel, J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 21, 1575-1589, 2004.
51. Rediniotis, O. K. and Kisner, R. E.: Development of a nearly omnidirectional velocity measurement pressure probe, AIAA J., 36, 1854-1860, 1998.
52. Richardson, S. J., Brock, F. V., Semmer, S. R., and Jirak, C.: Minimizing errors associated with multiplate radiation shields, J. Atmos. Oceanic Tech., 16, 1862-1872, 1999.
53. Schmitt, K. F., Friehe, C. A., and Gibson, C. H.: Humidity sensitivity of atmospheric temperature sensors to salt contamination, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 8, 151-161, 1978.
54. Schotanus, P., Nieuwstadt, F. T. M., and de Bruin, H. A. R.: Temperature measurement with a sonic anemometer and its application to heat and moisture fluxes, Bound.-Layer Meteor., 26, 81-93, 1983.
55. Shakespeare, W.: Hamlet, Prince of Denmarke, act I, scene IV, line 18, 1603.
56. Smith, S. D.: Wind Stress and Heat Flux over the Ocean in Gale Force Winds, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 10, 709-726, 1980.
57. Soloviev, A. and Lukas, R.: The Near-Surface Layer of the Ocean, Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 572 pp., 2006.
58. Takahashi, S., Kondo, F., Tsukamoto, O., Ito, Y., Hirayama, S., and Ishida, H.: On-board automated eddy flux measurement system over open ocean, SOLA, 1, 37-40, doi:10.2151/sola.2005-011, 2005.
59. Taylor, P. K., Dunlap, E., Dobson, F. W., Anderson, R. J., and Swail V. R.: On the accuracy of wind and wave measurements from buoys, Data Buoy Cooperation Panel Tech. Doc. No. 21-2002, Presentations at the DBCP Technical Workshop, Perth, Australia, October, 2001.
60. Taylor, P. K. and Yelland, M. J.: On the apparent "imbalance" term in the turbulent kinetic energy budget, J. Atmos. Oceanic Tech., 17, 82-89, 2000.
61. Taylor, P. K. and Yelland, M. J.: Comments on "On the effect of ocean waves on the kinetic energy balance and consequences for the inertial dissipation technique". J. Phys. Oceanog., 31, 2532-2536, 2001.
62. Thomas, B. R., Kent, E. C., and Swail, V. R.: Methods to homogenize wind speeds frrom ships and buoys, Int. J. Climatol., 25, 979-995, 2005.
63. WCRP: World Climate Research Programme, Final report of the Joint WCRP/SCOR Working Group on Air-Sea Fluxes (SCOR Working Group 110): Intercomparison and Validation of Ocean-Atmosphere Energy Flux Fields. WCRP-112, WMO/TD-No. 1036, Case Postale No. 2300, CH-1211 Geneva 2, Switzerland, 362 pp., 2000.
64. Weller, R. A. and P. K. Taylor: Surface conditions and air-sea fluxes. OOSDP Background Report #3. CCCO-JSC Ocean Observing System Development Panel, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA, 131 pp., 1993.
65. Weller, R. A., Bradley, E. F., and Lukas, R.: The interface or air-sea flux component of the TOGA Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Response Experiment and its impact on subsequent air-sea interaction studies, J. Atmos. Oceanic Tech., 21, 223-257, 2004.
66. Yelland, M. J., Taylor, P. K., Consterdine, I. E., and Smith, M. H.: Use of the inertial dissipation technique for shipboard wind stress determination, J. Atmos. Oceanic. Tech., 11, 1093-1108, 1994.
67. Yelland, M. J., Moat, B. I., Taylor, P. K., Pascal, R. W., Hutchings, J., and Cornell, V. C.: Wind stress measurements from the open ocean corrected for air flow distortion by the ship, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 28, 1511-1526, 1998.
68. Yelland, M. J., Moat, B. I., Pascal, R. W., and Berry, D. I.: CFD model estimates of the airflow distortion over research ships and the impact on momentum flux measurements, J. Atmos. Oceanic Tech., 19, 1477-1499, 2002.
69. Yu, L. and Weller, R. A.: Objectively analyzed air-sea heat fluxes for the global ice-free oceans, Bull, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 88, 527-539, 2007.
70. Yuter, S. E. and Parker, W. S.: Rainfall measurement on ship revisited: The 1997 PACS TEPPS cruise, J. Appl. Meteorol., 40, 1003-1018, 2001.