The Gender Gap in Latin America: Contextual and individual influences on gender and political participation

British Journal of Political Science

Volumn 39, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 141-162

  Desposato, Scott ^a   Norrander, Barbara ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 57349173513     PISSN: 00071234     EISSN: 14692112     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007123408000458     Document Type: Article

References (90)

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37. Aviel, 'Political Participation of Women in Latin America'.
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40. See Beckwith, American Women and Political Participation; Campbell et al., The American Voter; Christy, Sex Differences in Political Participation; G. Firebaugh and K. Chen, 'Voter Turnout of 19th Amendment Women - The Enduring Effect of Disenfranchisement', American Journal of Sociology, 100 (1995), 972-96;
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46. Campbell et al., The American Voter.
47. Sapiro, Political Integration of Women.
48. We are unable to test for the effects of children on participation as no question on parenthood was included in the Latinobarometro survey.
49. Burns, Schlozman and Verba, The Private Roots of Public Action.
50. Bernadette C. Hayes and Clive S. Bean, 'Gender and Local Political Interest: Some International Comparisons', Political Studies, 41 (1993), 672-82; Inglehart, 'Political Interest in West European Women'.
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56. We also tested two other institutional factors: date of female suffrage and compulsory voting laws. Neither had any direct influence on the gender gap in participation. However, the date of female suffrage has an indirect effect through age and political generations.
57. Fornos, Power and Garand, 'Explaining Voter Turnout in Latin American, 1980 to 2000'.
58. Aviel, 'Political Participation of Women in Latin America'; Baldez. Why Women Protest; Jaquette, 'Women and Democracy'.
59. Craske, 'Remasculinisation and the Neoliberal State in Latin America'; Friedman, 'Paradoxes of Gendered Political Opportunity in the Venezuelan Transition to Democracy'.
60. Craske, 'Remasculinisation and the Neoliberal State in Latin America"; Friedman, 'Paradoxes of Gendered Political Opportunity in the Venezuelan Transition to Democracy'.
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63. Inglehart and Norris, Rising Tide.
64. Fornos, Power and Garand, 'Explaining Voter Turnout in Latin American, 1980 to 2000'.
65. Inglehart and Norris, Rising Tide.
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71. Marco R. Steenbergen and Bradford S. Jones, 'Modeling Multilevel Data Structures', American Journal of Political Science, 46 (2002), 218-37.
72. Predicted values come from the reduced models. Where interactions were not included in the reduced model, the gender gap will be unaffected by covariates, by design. See, for example, Religiosity in Table 3.
73. Most Latin American countries restrict voting to those 18 years of age or older; Brazil allows literate 16 and 17 year olds to vote.
74. Andersen, 'Working Women and Political Participation, 1952-1972'; Andersen and Cook, 'Women, Work, and Political Attitudes'; Welch, 'Women as Political Animals?'
75. Note that in all cases of significant interactions, the overall effects of gender are significant after adjusting for the covariance of the combined main and interaction effects, except in two cases, both discussed in the text.
76. Pippa Norris and Ronald Inglehart, 'Women as Political Leaders Worldwide: Cultural Barriers and Opportunities', in Sue Thomas and Clyde Wilcox, eds, Women and Elective Office: Past, Present, and Future, 2nd edn (New York; Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 244-63.
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78. Barnes and Kaase, Political Action.
79. Inglehart and Norris, Rising Tide.
80. Recall that the Freedom House scores are coded such that low scores are the most free, and high scores the least free.
81. Aviel, 'Political Participation of Women in Latin America'; Baldez, Why Women Protest; Jaquette, 'Women and Democracy'.
82. Aviel, 'Political Participation of Women in Latin America'; Baldez, Why Women Protest; Jaquette, 'Women and Democracy'.
83. Inglehart and Norris, Rising Tide.
84. Jane S. Jaquette and Sharon L. Wolchik, eds, Women and Democracy: Latin America and Central and Eastern Europe (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998).
85. Pradeep Chhibber, 'Why Are Some Women Politically Active? The Household, Public Space, and Political Participation in India', in Ronald Ingelhart, ed., Islam, Gender, Culture, and Democracy (Willowdale, Ont.: De Sitter Publications, 2003), pp. 186-206.
86. Setting positive interactions with Woman to their maximum empirical values and interactions with negative coefficients to their minimum empirical values.
87. Inglehart and Norris, Rising Tide.
88. See http://www.latinobarometro.org.
89. Inter-Parliamentary Union. Women in National Parliaments, http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif-arc.htm.
90. See http://www.freedomhouse.org for more details.