The power of water: Landscape, water and the state in Southern and Eastern Africa: An introduction

Journal of Southern African Studies

Volumn 34, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 737-756

  Fontein, Joost ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 57249084103     PISSN: 03057070     EISSN: 14653893     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03057070802456730     Document Type: Editorial

References (229)

1. IRIN, Running Dry: The Humanitarian Impact of the Global Water Crisis In-Depth Report (October 2006), available at http://www.irinnews.org/in-depth.aspx, retrieved on 1 May 2008.
2. IRIN, Running Dry, p. 3
3. F. Pearce, When Rivers Run Dry: Water - The Defining Crisis of the Twenty-First Century (Boston, Beacon Press, 2006).
4. IRIN, Running Dry, p. 4.
5. Ibid., p. 4.
6. M. de Villiers, Water Wars: Is the World's Water Running Out? (London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1999)
7. P.H. Gleick, 'Water and Conflict: Fresh Water Resources and International Security', International Security, 18, 1(1993), pp. 79-112
8. H. Solomon and A.R. Turton (eds), Water Wars: Enduring Myth or Impending Reality?, African Dialogue Series 2 (Durban/Pretoria, ACCORD, Green Cross International & the African Water Issues Research Unit (AWIRU), 2000)
9. J.R. Starr and D.C. Stoll (eds), The Politics of Scarcity: Water in the Middle East (Boulder, CO, Westview, 1998)
10. A.R. Turton, 'Water and Conflict in an African Context', Conflict Trends, 5 (1999).
11. See for example C.J.C. Reason and A. Keibel, 'Tropical Cyclone Eline and its Unusual Penetration and Impacts over the Southern African Mainland', Weather Forecasting, 19 (2004), pp. 789-805
12. also United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), Africa Environment Outlook Past, Present and Future Perspectives, commissioned by African Ministerial Conference on the Environment (AMCEN), 2002, available at http://www.grida.no/aeo/index.htm, accessed on 23 April 2008.
13. P. McCully, Silenced Rivers: The Ecology and Politics of Large Dams (London, Zed books, 1996)
14. W. Adams, Wasting the Rain: Rivers, People and Planning (London, University of Minnesota Press, 1995).
15. M. Leach and R. Mearns (eds), The Lie of the Land: Challenging Received Wisdom on African Environment (Oxford, James Currey, 1996).
16. W. Beinart, 'African History and Environmental History', African Affairs, 99 (2000), pp. 269-302
17. W. Beinart and J. McGregor, Social History and African Environments (Oxford, James Currey, 2003).
18. E. Colson, The Social Consequences of Resettlement, Kariba studies IV (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1971)
19. Beinart, 'African History and Environmental History', p. 275
20. McCully, Silenced Rivers
21. Adams, Wasting the Rain
22. A. Isaacman and C. Sneddon, 'Toward a Social and Environmental History of the Building of the Cahora Bassa Dam', Journal of Southern African Studies, 26, 4 (2000)
23. H.J. Hoag, 'The Damming of Africa', in J.W.N. Tempelhoff (ed.), African Water Histories: Transdisciplinary Discourses (Vanderbijlpark, North West University, 2005)
24. D. Tsikata, Living in the Shadow of Large Dams: Long Term Responses of Downstream and Lakeside Communities of Ghana's Volta River Project (Leiden, Brill, 2006).
25. On the loss of ancestral graves see, for example, J. Fontein, 'Languages of Land, Water and "Tradition" around Lake Mutirikwi in Southern Zimbabwe', Journal of Modern African Studies, 44, 2 (2006), pp. 223-49
26. J. Fontein, 'Graves, Water and Chiefs: The Articulation of Memories and Practises of Landscape around Lake Mutirikwi' (unpublished paper presented at history departmental seminar, University of Zimbabwe, June 2006). The loss of archaeological sites was the subject of a paper entitled 'Damming the Past: Archaeological Assessments of Two Large Dam Projects in Botswana and Namibia', by John Kinahan, who unfortunately had to withdraw from the conference.
27. But see J. Kinahan, 'Over My Dead Body: Archaeology and Pastoral Land Rights in the Lower Cunene Valley, South Western Africa', in G. Barker and D. Gildertson (eds), Damming the Past: Dams and Cultural Heritage Management in Global Perspective (Lexington books, Lanham, Maryland, 2006).
28. Beinart, 'African History and Environmental History', p. 296.
29. F. Cleaver, 'Water as a Weapon: The History of Water Supply Development in Nkayi District, Zimbabwe', in Environment and History, Special Issue on Zimbabwe, 1, 3 (1995), pp. 313-33
30. K. Ngalamulume, 'Coping with Disease in the French Empire: The Waterworks in Saint-Louis-du-Senegal, 1860-1914', in Tempelhoff, African Water Histories
31. K. Wall, 'Water - Unifier of a City', in Tempelhoff, African Water Histories
32. M. Musemwa, 'Disciplining a "Dissident" City: Hydropolitics in the City of Bulawayo, Matabeleland, Zimbabwe, 1980-1994', JSAS, 32, 2 (2006)
33. E. Mufema, 'The Role and Significance of Zimbabwe's Water Resources Commission 1953-4', in Tempelhoff, African Water Histories
34. B. Page, 'Narratives of Construction in Contemporary Water Politics: Tombel and Kumbo in Cameroon', in Tempelhoff, African Water Histories
35. M. Bender, 'Water is Life: Developing Water and Nation on Kilimanjaro, Tanzania, 1950-1975' (unpublished paper, Power of Water conference, March 2007)
36. M. Ertsen, 'Depending on a Fairly Rigid Schedule of Operations: History and Context of the Mwea Irrigation Scheme' (unpublished paper, 'Power of Water conference', March 2007)
37. S. Struck and D. Bradley, 'Predict Settlement Behaviour and Plan Water Before Allocating Land: Settling Pastoralists and Access to Water in South West Uganda' (unpublished paper, 'Power of Water conference', March 2007).
38. T. Ranger, 'Closing Remarks' (unpublished manuscript, Power of Water conference, April 2007).
39. Ranger, 'Closing Remarks'.
40. J. Fontein, '"We Want to Belong to Our Roots and We Want to be Modern People": New Farmers, Old Claims around Lake Mutirikwi, in Southern Zimbabwe' (unpublished manuscript presented at archaeology departmental seminar, University of Glasgow, November 2007).
41. B. Page, 'Communities as the Agents of Commodification: The Kumbo Water Authority in Northwest Cameroon', Geoforum, 34 (2003), pp. 483-98
42. D. McDonald and G. Ruiters (eds), The Age of Commodity: Water Privatization in Southern Africa (London, Earthscan, 2005)
43. A. Debbané, 'The Dry Plight of Freedom: Commodifying Water in the Western Cape, South Africa', Antipode, 39, 1 (2007), pp. 222-6.
44. The Standard, 2 April 2007, cited in Ranger, 'Closing Remarks'. For more on the history of Bulawayo's fraught relationship with central government, see T. Ranger, 'City Versus State in Zimbabwe: Colonial Antecedents of the Current Crisis', Journal of Eastern African Studies, 1, 2 (July 2007), pp. 161-92.
45. E. Manzungu, A. Senzanje and P. van der Zaag (eds), Water for Agriculture in Zimbabwe: Policy and Management Options for the Smallholder Sector (Harare, University of Zimbabwe Publications, 1999).
46. E. Mufema, 'Old Wine in New Bottles: Water Governance and Development Interventions in Zimbabwe 1980s-2000' (unpublished manuscript, Power of Water conference, March 2007)
47. L. Swatuk, 'Mainstreaming Politics: A Critical Interpretation of "Benefit Sharing" in Transboundary Resource Governance' (unpublished manuscript, Power of Water conference, March 2007).
48. A. Hellum and B. Derman, 'Re-Negotiating Water and Land Rights in Zimbabwe: Some Reflections on Legal Pluralism, Identity and Power', in J. Murison, A. Griffiths and K. King (eds), Remaking Law in Africa: Transnationalism, Persons and Rights (Edinburgh, Centre of Africa Studies, 2004), p. 235
49. G.J. Pienaar and E. van der Schyff, 'The History, Development and Allocation of Water Rights in South Africa', in Tempelhoff, African Water Histories
50. Manzungu et al., Water for Agriculture
51. E. Manzungu and K. Kujinga, 'The Theory and Practice of Governance of Water Resources in Zimbabwe', Zambezia, 29, 2 (2002), pp. 195-216.
52. One good example here is Mary Galvin and Adam Habib's discussion of how the South African government's rural water sector policies, supported by international donors, claim to promote 'community-orientated' decentralisation of government but often effect 'state-centric forms of decentralisation', see M. Galvin and A. Habib, 'The Politics of Decentralisation and Donor Funding in South Africa's Rural Water Sector', JSAS, 29, 4 (2003), pp. 865-84.
53. As Beinart identified 'an environmental element may also be profitably inserted into analyses of the social and economic history of African cities and their relationship to their hinterlands', see Beinart, 'African History and Environmental History', p. 301. The growing interest in urban landscapes was also reflected in the theme of 'Urban Culture, Urban Crisis' for the Britain Zimbabwe Society's 2007 Research day held at St Anthony's college Oxford in June 2007. The obvious saliency of this theme was, of course also provoked by the drastic effects of the Zimbabwean Government's 2005 Operation Murambatsvina which made thousands of Zimbabwean urban dwellers destitute between May and August 2005.
54. F. Cleaver, 'Moral Ecological Rationality, Institutions and the Management of Common Property Resources', Development and Change, 31 (2000), p. 381
55. G. Hardin, 'The Tragedy of the Commons', Science, 162 (1968), pp. 1,243-48
56. E. Ostrom, Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action (New York, Cambridge University Press, 1990).
57. Cleaver, 'Moral Ecological Rationality', p. 381.
58. B. Derman, 'Cultures of Development and Indigenous Knowledge: The Erosion of Traditional Boundaries', Africa Today, 50, 2 (2003), p. 67
59. N. Nemarundwe and W. Kozanayi, 'Institutional Arrangements for Water Resource Use: A Case Study from Southern Zimbabwe', JSAS, 29, 1 (2003), p. 206.
60. Beinart, 'African History and Environmental History', p. 279
61. R. Behnke, I. Scoones and C. Kerven (eds), Range Ecology at Disequilibrium (London, Overseas Development Institute, 1993)
62. I. Scoones (ed.), Living with Uncertainity: New Directions in Pastoral Development in Africa (London, Intermediate Technology Publications, 1995).
63. V. Strang, The Meaning of Water (Oxford, Berg, 2004).
64. R. Layton and P. Ucko (eds), The Archaeology and Anthropology of Landscape (London, Routledge, 1999)
65. E. Hirsch and M. O'Hanlon (eds), The Anthropology of Landscape: Perspectives on Place and Space (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1995)
66. B. Bender (ed.), Landscape: Politics and Perspectives (Oxford, Berg, 1993)
67. B. Bender, Stonehenge: Making Space (Oxford, Berg, 1998)
68. B. Bender and M. Winer (eds), Contested Landscapes: Movement, Exile and Place (Oxford, Berg, 2001)
69. S. Daniel and D. Cosgrove (eds), The Iconography of Landscape (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1988)
70. P. Stewart and A. Strathern (eds), Landscape, Memory and History: Anthropological Perspectives (London, Pluto Press, 2003).
71. In order: Daniel and Cosgrove, The Iconography of Landscape
72. Hirsch and O'Hanlon, The Anthropology of Landscape
73. C. Tilley, The Phenomenology of Landscape: Places, Paths and Monuments (Oxford, Berg, 1994)
74. T. Ingold, 'Culture and the Perception of the Environment', in E. Croll and D. Parkin (eds), Bush Base: Forest Farm: Culture, Environment and Development (London, Routledge, 1992)
75. T. Ingold, 'The Temporality of Landscape', Conceptions of Time and Ancient Society: World Archaeology, 25, 2 (1993)
76. Bender, Landscape: Politics and Perspectives
77. Bender, Stonehenge; and Bender and Winer, Contested Landscapes.
78. J.M. Schoffleleers (ed.), Guardians of the Land (Gweru, Mambo Press, 1978)
79. R.P. Werbner (ed.), Regional Cults (London, Academic Press, 1977)
80. R.P. Werbner, Ritual Passage, Sacred Journey: The Process and Organisation of Religious Movements (Washington, Smithsonian Institute, 1989)
81. M. Daneel, God of the Matopos Hills (The Hague, Mouton, 1970)
82. M. Daneel, African Earthkeepers, Volume 1, Interfaith Mission in Earth-Care (Pretoria, Unisa Press, 1998)
83. E. Colson, 'Places of Power and Shrines of the Land', Paideuma, 43 (1997)
84. T. Ranger, Voices from the Rocks (Oxford, James Currey, 1999).
85. Beinart, 'African History and Environmental History', p. 290
86. Schoffleleers (ed.), Guardians of the Land
87. U. Luig and A. von Oppen, 'Landscape in Africa: Process and Vision: An Introductory Essay', Paideuma, 43 (1997).
88. See also: D. Maxwell, Christians and Chiefs in Zimbabwe: A Social History of the Hwesa People, 1870s-1990s (Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 1999), p. 53
89. T. Ranger, Peasant Consciousness and Guerilla War in Zimbabwe (London, James Currey, 1985)
90. Ranger, Voices.
91. D. Lan, Guns & Rain: Guerrillas and Spirit Mediums in Zimbabwe (London, James Currey, 1985). Of course, the causes and effects of drought and famine are complex and can take many forms in different contexts
92. see for example A. de Waal, Famine that Kills, Darfur, Sudan (Oxford, Oxford University Press, [1989] 2005). As recent NGO reports on the difficult political situation in Zimbabwe illustrate, droughts and famine can feed into unsettled political situations leading to the politics of hunger, and food aid.
93. See, for example, Amnesty International, Zimbabwe: Power and Hunger - Violations of the Right to Food (15 October 2004) available at www.sarpn.org.za/documents/d0000972/index.php, accessed on 1 May 2008
94. Human Rights Watch, 'The Politics of Food Assistance in Zimbabwe', Human Rights Watch Briefing Paper (12 August 2004), available at www.hrw.org/backgrounder/africa/zimbabwe/2004/, accessed on 1 May 2008.
95. C. Vijfhuizen, 'Rain-Making, Political Conflicts and Gender Images: A Case from Mutema Chieftaincy in Zimbabwe', in Manzungu et al., Water for Agriculture
96. Fontein, 'Languages of Land, Water and "Tradition"'
97. T. Ranger, 'Women and Environment in African Religion: The Case of Zimbabwe', in Beinart and McGregor Social History and African Environments
98. M.J. Spierenberg, Strangers, Spirits, and Land Reforms: Conflicts about Land in Dande, Northern Zimbabwe (Leiden, Brill, 2004)
99. B.B. Mukamuri, 'Local Environmental Conservation Strategies: Karanga Religion, Politics and Environmental Control', Environment and History, Special Issue on Zimbabwe, 1, 3 (1995), pp. 297-311.
100. A. Southall, Alur Society (Cambridge, Heffer, no date)
101. W. James, 'The Politics of Rain Control among the Uduk', in I. Cunnison and W. James (eds), Essays in Sudan Ethnography (London, Hurst, 1972).
102. R. Packard, Chiefship and Cosmology: An Historical Study of Political Competition (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1981)
103. J. Akong'a, 'Rain Making Rituals: A Comparative Study of Two Kenyan Societies', African Study Monographs (Kyoto) 8 (1987), pp. 71-85
104. M.C. Jedrej, 'Rain Makers, Women and Sovereignty in Africa', in E. Fradenberg (ed.), Women and Sovereignty (Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 1992)
105. Werbner, Regional Cults
106. Werbner, Ritual Passage, Sacred Journey
107. Colson, 'Places of Power'.
108. Fontein, 'Languages of Land, Water and "Tradition"'
109. Fontein, 'We want to Belong to Our Roots and We Want to be Modern People'
110. Fontein, 'Graves, Water and Chiefs'
111. J. Fontein, 'Shared Legacies of the War: Spirit Mediums and War Veterans in Zimbabwe', Journal of Religion in Africa, 36, 2 (2006)
112. L. Buur and H.M. Kyed, 'Contested Sources of Authority: Re-claiming State Sovereignty by Formulizing Traditional Authority in Mozambique, Development and Change, 37, 4 (2006), pp. 847-69
113. H.M. Kyed and L. Buur, 'New Sites of Citizenship: Recognition of Traditional Authority and Group-based Citizenship in Mozambique', JSAS, 32, 3 (2006), pp. 563-81
114. D. James, 'Hill of Thorns: Custom, Knowledge and the Reclaiming of a Lost Land in the New South Africa', Development and Change, 31 (2000), pp. 629-49.
115. E. Worby, 'Tyranny, Parody, and Ethnic Polarity: Ritual Engagements with the State in Northwestern Zimbabwe', JSAS, 24, 3 (1998), p. 563.
116. D. Hughes, 'Whites & Water: How Euro-Africans made Nature at Kariba Dam', Journal of Southern African Studies, 32, 4 (2006), pp. 823-38
117. D.M. Hughes, 'Hydrology of Hope: Farm Dams, Conservation, and Whiteness in Zimbabwe', American Ethnologist, 33, 2 (2006), pp. 269-87.
118. See also, D. Lavin. 'Irrigation Development in South Africa - the Smartt Syndicate and Cape Sundays River Settlement Co', in Tempelhoff, African Water Histories.
119. L. Guelke and R. Shell, 'Landscapes of Conquest: Frontier Water Alienation and Khoikoi Strategies of Survival, 1652-1780', JSAS, 18, 4 (1992), pp. 803-24
120. Beinart, 'African History and Environmental History', p. 272.
121. D.M. Hughes, 'The Art of Belonging: Whites Writing Landscape in Savannah Africa' (unpublished manuscript, Power of Water conference, April 2007).
122. J. McGregor, 'Living with the River: Landscape and Memory in the Zambezi Valley, Northwest Zimbabwe', in Beinart and McGregor, Social History and African Environments
123. J. McGregor, 'Claiming the Zambezi. Reflections on Rivers and History' (unpublished manuscript, Power of Water conference, April 2007).
124. Fontein, 'Languages of Land, Water and "Tradition"'.
125. K. Ngalamulume, 'Coping with Disease in the French Empire: The Waterworks in Saint-Louis-du-Senegal, 1860-1914' in Tempelhoff, African Water Histories
126. B.B. Waddy, 'Frontiers and Disease in West Africa', Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 61, 4 (1958), pp. 100-7
127. B.B. Waddy, 'Research into the Health Problems of Manmade Lakes, with Special Reference to Africa', Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 69, 1 (1975), pp. 39-50
128. K. Kupperman, 'Fear of Hot Climates in the Anglo-American Colonial Experience' in William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, vol. XLI (1984), pp. 213-40
129. K. David Patterson, 'Disease and Medicine in African History: A Bibliographical Essay', History in Africa, 1 (1974), pp. 141-8
130. J. Ford, The Role of Trypanosomiases in African Ecology: A Study of the Tsetse Fly Problem (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1971)
131. T.E. Erlanger, J. Keiser, M.C. De Castro, R. Bos, B.H. Singer, M. Tanner and J. Utzinger, 'Effect of Water Resource Development and Management on Lymphatic Filariasis, and Estimates of Populations at Risk', American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 73, 5 (2005), pp. 523-33
132. J. Keiser, M.C. de Castro, M.F. Maltese, R. Bos, M. Tanner, B.H. Singer, J. Utzinger, 'Effect of Irrigation and Large Dams on the Burden of Malaria on a Global and Regional Scale', American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 72, 4 (2005), pp. 392-406.
133. World Health Organisation (WHO), Report of International Workshop: Health as a Cross-cutting Issue for Dialogues on Water for Food and the Environment, Amman, Jordan, 15-18 December 2003.
134. M. Rockman and J. Steele (eds), Colonization of Unfamiliar Landscapes: The Archaeology of Adaptation (London, Routledge, 2003)
135. H. Lamar and L. Thompson (eds), The Frontier inHistory: North American and Southern Africa Compared (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1981)
136. Waddy, 'Frontiers and Disease in West Africa'.
137. H. Aschwanden, Karanga Mythology. An Analysis of the Consciousness of the Karanga in Zimbabwe (Gwero: Mambo Press, 1989), pp. 186-99
138. Daneel, African Earthkeepers
139. P.S. Bernard, 'Ecological Implications of Water Spirit Beliefs in Southern Africa: The Need to Protect Knowledge, Nature and Resource Rights', USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-27 (2003)
140. A. Mawere and K. Wilson, 'Socio-Religious Movements, the State and Community Change: Some Reflections on the Ambuya Juliana Cult of Southern Zimbabwe', Journal of Religion in Africa, 25, 3 (1995), pp. 252-87.
141. M. Engelke, 'Sticky Subjects and Sticky Objects: The Substance of African Christian Healing', in D. Miller (ed.), Materiality (Durham, Duke University Press, 2005)
142. E. Rinne, 'Water & Healing: Experiences from Traditional Healers in Ile-Ife, Nigeria', Nordic Journal of African Studies. 10, 1 (2001), pp. 41-65
143. A. Shorter, 'Spirit Possession and Christian Healing in Tanzania', African Affairs, 79, 314 (1980), pp. 45-53
144. D.O. Ogungbile, 'Meeting Point of Culture and Health: The Case of the Aladura Churches in Nigeria', Nordic Journal of African Studies, 6, 1 (1997), pp. 98-111.
145. H-J. Becken, '"Give me Water, Woman of Samaria".The Pilgrimage of Southern African Blacks in the 1980s', Journal of Religion in Africa 14, 2 (1983), pp. 115-29
146. J. Kiernan, 'Saltwater & Ashes; Instruments of Curing among some Zulu Zionists', Journal of Religion in Africa, 9, 1 (1978), pp. 27-32.
147. P.S. Breidenbach, 'Spatial Juxtapositions and Belief Orientations in a Ritual of a Ghanaian Healing Movement', Journal of Religion in Africa 7, 2 (1975), pp. 92-110.
148. See J. McGregor and T. Ranger, 'Displacement and Disease. Epidemics and Ideas about Malaria in Matabeleland, 1945-1996', in Past & Present, 167 (2000).
149. Also P. Ashton and V. Ramasar, 'Water and HIV/AIDS: Some Strategic Considerations', in A. Turton and R. Henwood (eds), Hydropolitics in the Developing World: A Southern African Perspective (Pretoria, AWIRU, 2002).
150. E. Akyeampong, Between the Sea and the Lagoon: An Eco-Social History of the Anlo of Southeastern Ghana (Athens, Ohio University Press, 2001)
151. R.L. Pouwels, Horn and Crescent; Cultural Change and Traditional Islam on the East African Coast, 800-1900 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1987)
152. N. Aarnink, 'Socio-Political Struggles over Fish', in B. Venenma and H. van der Breemer (eds), Towards Negotiated Co-Management of Natural Resources in Africa (Piscataway, N.J., Transaction Publishers, 1999)
153. D.M. Gordon, Nachituti's Gift: Economy, Society & Environment in Central Africa (Wisconsin, University of Wisconsin Press, 2006)
154. T. Goldschmidt, Darwin's Dream Pond: Drama in Lake Victoria (Cambridge, MIT Press, 1998)
155. A.P. Cheater, 'The Zimbabwe Kapenta Fishery', in M.F.C. Bourdillon, A.P. Cheater and M.W. Murphree (eds), Studies of the Fishery on Lake Kariba (Gwero: Mambo Press, 1987)
156. J. McCracken, 'Fishing and the Colonial Economy: The Case of Malawi', Journal of African History, 28 (1987), pp. 413-29.
157. Gordon, Nachituti's Gift, p. 5.
158. For example, D.M. Hughes, From Enslavement to Environmentalism: Politics on a Southern African Frontier (London & Harare, University of Washington Press & Weaver Press, 2006)
159. D. Hulme and M. Murphree, 'Communities, Wildlife and the 'New Conservation' in Africa', Journal of International Development, 11, 2 (1999), pp. 277-86.
160. C.J. Walley, Rough Waters: Nature and Development in an East African Marine Park (Oxford, Princeton University Press, 2004), p. 17.
161. For example, C. Reij, I. Scoones and C. Toulmin (eds), Sustaining the Soil: Indigenous Soil and Water Conservation in Africa (London, Earthscan, 1996)
162. J.E.G. Sutton, 'Irrigation and Soil-Conservation in African Agricultural History with a Reconsideration of the Inyanga Terracing (Zimbabwe) and Engaruka Irrigation Works (Tanzania)', The Journal of African History 25, 1 (1984), pp. 25-41.
163. G. Connah, African Civilisations: Precolonial Cities and States in Tropical Africa, An Archaeological Perspective (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1987).
164. M. Manyanga, 'Debating the Influence of Water Resources on Pre-Historic Settlement Patterns Over the Past 1000 years in the Shashe-Limpopo Basin, Southern Zimbabwe' (unpublished manuscript, 'Power of Water conference', April 2007).
165. Beinart and McGregor, Social History & African Environments, p. 12.
166. I. Pikirayi, 'Environmental Data & Historical Processes: Historic Climatic Reconstruction & the Mutapa State, 1450-1862', in Beinart and McGregor, Social History & African Environments.
167. Beinart, 'African History and Environmental History', p. 287.
168. Beinart, 'African History and Environmental History', p. 301.
169. Layton and Ucko, The Archaeology and Anthropology of Landscape, p. 3.
170. W. Beinart, 'Soil Erosion, Conservationism and Ideas about Development: a Southern African Exploration', JSAS, 11, 1 (1984), pp. 52-83
171. M. Drinkwater, The State and Agrarian Change in Zimbabwe's Communal Areas (London, Macmillan, 1991)
172. D.M. Anderson, 'Depression, Dust Bowl, Demography and Drought: The Colonial State and Soil Conservation in East Africa During the 1930s', African Affairs, 83, 332 (1984), pp. 321-43.
173. J. Alexander, The Unsettled Land: State-Making & the Politics of Land in Zimbabwe 1893-2003 (Oxford, James Currey, 2006), p. 44
174. D.A. Low and J. Lonsdale, 'Introduction: Towards a New Order, 1945-1963', in D.A. Low and J. Lonsdale (eds), History of East Africa (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1976), pp. 12-16.
175. Alexander, The Unsettled Land, pp. 24-5
176. D.S. Moore, Suffering for Territory: Race, Place and Power in Zimbabwe (Harare, Weaver Press, 2005), pp. 80-5
177. J. McGregor, 'Conservation, Control and Ecological Change: The Politics and Ecology of Colonial Conservation in Shurugwi, Zimbabwe', JSAS, Special Issue on Zimbabwe, Environment and History, 1, 3 (1995), pp. 256-79.
178. J. McGregor, 'Introduction' to JSAS Special Issue on Zimbabwe, Environment and History, 1, 3 (1995), pp. 253-256
179. K.B. Wilson, '"Water Used to be Scattered in the Landscape" Local Understandings of Soil Erosion and Land Use Planning in Southern Zimbabwe', JSAS, Special Issue on Zimbabwe, Environment and History 1, 3(1995), pp. 281-96
180. Spierenberg, Strangers, Spirits, and Land Reforms.
181. See for example, Reij et al., Sustaining the Soil.
182. F.D.A. Mackenzie, Land, Ecology, and Resistance in Kenya, 1880-1952 (Portsmouth, Heinemann, 1998)
183. Ranger, Voices.
184. Wilson, 'Water used to be Scattered in the Landscape', p. 289.
185. Ibid., pp. 289-90.
186. G. Carswell, 'Soil Conservation Policies in Colonial Kigezi, Uganda: Successful Implementation and an Absence of Resistance', in Beinart and McGregor, Social History & African Environments.
187. J.J. Chaumba, J. Scoones and W. Wolmer, 'From Jambanja to Planning: The Reassertion of Technocracy in Land Reform in South-eastern Zimbabwe?', Journal of Modern African Studies, 41, 4 (2003), pp. 533-54
188. Fontein, 'Languages of Land, Water & "Tradition"'
189. Fontein, 'We Want to be Modern & We Want to Belong to Our Roots'.
190. See also: Beinart, 'African History and Environmental History', p. 292.
191. Fontein, 'Languages of Land, Water & "Tradition"'.
192. McCully, Silenced Rivers, p. 8.
193. Alexander, The Unsettled Land, p. 10.
194. This derives from the work of Deleuze and Guattari. See G. Deleuze, Foucault (Minneapolis, University of Minneapolis Press, 1986, translated and edited by Sean Hand, 1988)
195. and G. Deleuze and F. Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia (Minneapolis, University of Minneapolis Press, 1980, translated by Brian Massumi, 1987).
196. Moore, Suffering for Territory, pp. 23-4.
197. D. Miller (ed.), Materiality (London, Duke University Press, 2005).
198. Miller, Materiality, pp. 11-15
199. A. Gell, Art and Agency: An Anthropological Theory (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1998)
200. B. Latour, We Have Never Been Modern (Hemel Hempstead, Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1993)
201. B. Latour, Pandora's Hope: An Essay on the Reality of Science Studies (Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1999).
202. Miller, Materiality, p. 13.
203. Ibid., p. 14.
204. Ingold, 'Culture and the Perception of the Environment', in The Perception of the Environment: Essays on Livelihood, Dwelling and Skill (London, Routledge, 2000), p. 40
205. J.J. Gibson, The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception (Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1979).
206. Ingold, 'Culture and the Perception of the Environment', pp. 51-2.
207. Ibid., p. 42.
208. Ibid., p. 42
209. Layton and Ucko, The Archaeology and Anthropology of Landscape, p. 3.
210. Ingold, 'Culture and the Perception of the Environment', p. 52.
211. Moore, Suffering for Territory, p. 24
212. citing Deleuze and Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus, p. 337.
213. Ibid., p. 24.
214. Beinart, 'African History and Environmental History', p. 301.
215. Referring to Paul Richards' concern about 'those social scientists who wish "to mine the natural sciences" very largely for "material that might lend itself to cultural critique" ... to examine only "cases, where bioscientific problems was framed in an unprofitable way" as in the "excesses of colonial agricultural planning"', Beinart argues that 'there must be an argument not only for understanding the complex histories of various sciences, but for bring sensitive science back in, Beinart, 'African History and Environmental History', pp. 294-95.
216. K.A. Wittfogel, Oriental Despotism. A Comparative Study of Total Power (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1957).
217. Beinart, 'African History and Environmental History', p. 287.
218. Wittfogel, Oriental Despotism, p. 11.
219. E.R. Leach, 'Hydraulic Society in Ceylon', Past & Present, 15 (1959), pp. 2-26.
220. D. Mosse, The Rule of Water; Statecraft, Ecology & Collective Action in South India (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 57.
221. Mosse, The Rule of Water, p. 57.
222. Ibid.
223. T. Hansen and F. Stepputat (eds), States of the Imagination (Durham, NC, Duke University Press, 2001).
224. Mosse, The Rule of Water, p. 57.
225. Ibid., p. 303.
226. See also, A. Baviskar, (ed.), Waterscapes - The Cultural Politics of Natural Resources (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2007).
227. Ranger, 'Closing Remarks'.
228. Ibid.
229. I must credit this phrase to James Smith who casually but usefully coined it during an early CAS Conference committee meeting in 2006.