Recent advances on hydrogen retention in iter's plasma-facing materials: Beryllium, carbon. And tungsten

Fusion Science and Technology

Volumn 54, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 891-945

  Skinner, C H ^a   Haasz, A A ^b   Almov, V K H ^c   Bekris, N ^d   Causey, R A ^e   Clark, R E H ^f   Coad, J P ^g   Davis, J W ^b   Doerner, R P ^h   Mayer, M ⁱ   Pisarev, A ^j   Roth, J ⁱ   Tanabe, T ^k  

^a PRINCETON PLASMA PHYSICS LABORATORY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

^c FRUMKIN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY AND ELECTROCHEMISTRY   (Russian Federation)

^d KARLSRUHE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (Germany)

^e SANDIA NATIONAL LABORATORIES   (United States)

^f INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY   (Austria)

^g CULHAM SCIENCE CENTRE   (United Kingdom)

^h UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

ⁱ MAX PLANCK INSTITUT FÜR PLASMAPHYSIK   (Germany)

^j NATIONAL RESEARCH NUCLEAR UNIVERSITY MEPHI   (Russian Federation)

^k KYUSHU UNIVERSITY   (Japan)

more..

Author keywords

Hydrogen retention; ITER; Plasma facing materials

Indexed keywords

BERYLLIUM; MAGNETOPLASMA; NUCLEAR REACTORS; TRITIUM; TUNGSTEN; TUNGSTEN COMPOUNDS;

COORDINATED RESEARCH PROJECTS; HYDROGEN RETENTION; INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY; ITER; LONG-TERM RETENTION; PLASMA FACING MATERIALS; PLASMA-FACING COMPONENTS; RETENTION MECHANISM;

C (PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE);

EID: 56749160355     PISSN: 15361055     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.13182/FST54-891     Document Type: Article

References (293)

1. "12th Meeting of the IFRC Subcommittee on Atomic and Molecular Data for Fusion," International Atomic Energy Agency Summary Report INDC(NDS)-420, available on the Internet at http://www-nds.iaea.org/reports-new/ indc-reports/indc-nds/indc-nds-0420.pdf (2000).
2. G. FEDERICI and C. H. SKINNER, "Tritium Inventory in the Materials of the ITER Plasma Facing Components," Nuclear Fusion Research-Understanding Plasma-Surface Interactions, Vol. 78, p. 287, D. REITER and R. E. H. CLARK, Eds., in Springer-Verlag Series in Chemical Physics, Springer Verlag, Heidelberg (2005).
3. G. FEDERICI et al., "Plasma-Material Interactions in Current Tokamaks and Their Implications for Next Step Fusion Reactors," Nucl. Fusion, 41, 1967 (2001).
4. R. A. CAUSEY, "Hydrogen Isotope Retention and Recycling in Fusion Reactor Plasma-Facing Components," J. Nucl. Mater., 300, 91 (2002).
5. A. A. HAASZ and J. W. DAVIS, "Hydrogen Retention in and Release from Carbon Materials," Nuclear Fusion Research, Springer-Verlag Series in Chemical Physics, p. 225, R. E. H. CLARK and D. H. REITER, Eds., Springer Verlag, Heidelberg, Germany (2005).
6. C. H. SKINNER, J. P. COAD, and G. FEDERICI, "Tritium Removal from Carbon Plasma Facing Components," Phys. Scripta, T111, 92 (2004).
7. G. FEDERICI, J. N. BROOKS, M. ISELI, and C. H. WU "In-Vessel Tritium Retention and Removal in ITER-FEAT," Phys. Scripta, T91, 76 (2001).
8. J. W. DAVIS and A. A. HAASZ, "Overview of ThermoOxidation of Tokamak Codeposits," Phys. Scripta, T91, 33 (2001).
9. G. F. COUNSELL and C. H. WU, "In-Situ Detection and Removal of Carbon Debris - A Challenge for Next Step Fusion Devices," Phys. Scripta, T91, 70 (2001).
10. J. Nucl. Mater., 363-365 (2007).
11. A. LOARTE et al., "A New Look at JET Operation with Be as a Plasma Facing Material," J. Nucl. Mater., 337-339, 816 (2005).
12. A. A. PISAREV, "Tritium Solubility and Diffusivity in Beryllium," Fusion Technol., 28, 1262 (1995).
13. P. M. S. JONES and R. GIBSON, "Hydrogen in Beryllium," J. Nucl. Mater., 21, 353 (1967).
14. W. A. SWANSIGER, "Summary Abstract: Tritium Solubility in High Purity Beryllium," J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A, 4, 3, 1216 (1986).
15. V. I. SHAPOVALOV and Y. M. DUKEL'SKII, "The Beryllium-Hydrogen Phase Diagram," Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR Metally, 5, 201 (1988).
16. E. ABRAMOV, M. P. RIEHM, and D. A. THOMSON, "Deuterium Permeation and Diffusion in High-Purity Beryllium," J. Nucl. Mater., 175, 90 (1990).
17. I. L. TAZHIBAEVA et al., "Deuterium Permeation Through Beryllium with Surface Element Control," Proc. 18th Symp. Fusion Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany, August 22-26, 1994, Vol. 1, p. 427 (1994).
18. D. A. THOMPSON and R. G. MACAULAY-NEWCOMBE, "Deuterium Absorption and Desorption in Potential Fusion Reactor Materials," CFFTP Annual Report I-9425, Canadian Fusion Fuels Technology Project (1994).
19. D. A. THOMPSON and R. G. MACAULAY-NEWCOMBE, "Solubility, Diffusion, and Desorption of Hydrogen Isotopes in Beryllium and Tungsten," ITER Task T227 (1996);
20. see also CFFTP Report G-9711, Canadian Fusion Fuels Technology Project (1997).
21. R. M. AL'TOVSKIY et al., "Hydrogen Permeability of Beryllium," Russian Metall., 3, 51 (1981).
22. R. A. ANDERL et al., "Hydrogen Transport Behavior of Beryllium," J. Nucl. Mater., 196-198, 986 (1992).
23. R. A. CAUSEY et al., "Tritium Retention and Migration in Beryllium," J. Nucl. Mater., 176-177, 654 (1990).
24. R. A. ANDERL et al., "Hydrogen Isotope Retention in Beryllium for Tokamak Plasma Facing Applications," J. Nucl. Mater., 273, 1 (1999).
25. R. A. LANGLEY, "Interaction of Implanted Deuterium and Helium with Beryllium: Radiation Enhanced Oxidation," J. Nucl. Mater., 85-86, 1123 (1979).
26. W. R. WAMPLER, "Retention and Thermal Release of Deuterium Implanted in Beryllium," J. Nucl. Mater., 122-123, 1598 (1984).
27. W. MOLLER, N. M. U. SCHERZER, and J. BOHDAN-SKY, "Retention and Release of Deuterium Implanted into Beryllium," IPP-JET Report 26 (1985).
28. W. R. WAMPLER, "Trapping of Deuterium in Beryllium," J. Nucl. Mater., 196-198, 981 (1992).
29. A. A. HAASZ and J. W. DAVIS, "Deuterium Retention in Beryllium, Molybdenum and Tungsten at High Fluences," J. Nucl. Mater., 241-243, 1076 (1997).
30. N. YOSHIDA, S. MIZUSAWA, R. SAKAMOTO, and T. MUROGA, "Radiation Damage and Deuterium Trapping in Deuterium Ion Injected Beryllium," J. Nucl. Mater., 233-237, 874 (1996).
31. H. D. FALTER, D. CIRIC, J. P. COAD, and D. GODDEN, "Deuterium Implantation in Actively Cooled Beryllium Monoblocks," JET Report R(97)03 (1997).
32. R. G. MACAULAY-NEWCOMBE, D. A. THOMPSON, and W. W. SMELTZER, "Deuterium Diffusion, Trapping, and Release in Ion-Implanted Beryllium," Fusion Eng. Des., 18, 419 (1991).
33. W. L. HSU et al., "Transient Release of Deuterium from Beryllium after Plasma Ion Implantation," J. Nucl. Mater., 176-177, 218 (1990).
34. R. A. CAUSEY, G. R. LONGHURST, and W. HARBIN, Tritium Retention in S-65 Beryllium After 100 eV Plasma Exposure," J. Nucl. Mater., 241-243, 1041 (1997).
35. R. P. DOERNER, A. GROSSMAN, S. LUCKHARDT, R. SERAYDARIAN, F. C. SZE, and D. G. WHYTE, "Response of Beryllium to Deuterium Plasma Bombardment," J. Nucl. Mater., 257, 51 (1998).
36. V. M. SHARAPOV, L. E. GAVRILOV, V. S. KULIKAUKAS, and A. V. MARKIN, "Deuterium Accumulation in Beryllium in Contact with Atomic Deuterium at 740 K," J. Nucl. Mater., 233-237, 870 (1996).
37. V. N. CHERNIKOV et al., "Gas-Induced Swelling of Beryllium Implanted with Deuterium Ions," J. Nucl. Mater., 233-237, 860 (1996).
38. V. K. ALIMOV, V. N. CHERNIKOV, and A. P. ZAKHAROV, "Depth Distribution of Deuterium Atoms and Molecules in Beryllium Implanted with D Ions," J. Nucl. Mater., 241-243, 1047 (1997).
39. A. V. MARKIN, V. N. CHERNIKOV, S. Y. RYBAKOV, and A. P. ZAKHAROV, "Thermal Desorption of Deuterium Implanted in Beryllium," J. Nucl. Mater., 233-237, 865 (1996).
40. M. MAYER, "Codeposition of Deuterium with BeO at Elevated Temperatures," J. Nucl. Mater., 240, 164 (1997).
41. R. A. CAUSEY and D. S. WALSH, "Codeposition of Deuterium with Beryllium: Letter to the Author," J. Nucl. Mater., 254, 84 (1998).
42. M. J. BALDWIN, K. SCHMID, R. P. DOERNER, A. WILTNER, R. SERAYDARIAN, and C. LINSMEIER, "Composition and Hydrogen Isotope Retention Analysis of Co-Deposited C/Be Layers," J. Nucl. Mater., 337-339, 590 (2005).
43. G. SAIBENE et al., "Hydrogen Recycling Coefficient in Beryllium," J. Nucl. Mater., 176-177, 618 (1990).
44. R. SARTORI et al., "Deuterium Release Measurements in the Be Phase of JET and Determination of Tritium Content in the Exhaust Gas," J. Nucl. Mater., 176-177, 624 (1990).
45. J. EHRENBERG et al., "Analysis of Deuterium Recycling in JET Under Beryllium First Wall Conditions," J. Nucl. Mater., 176-177, 226 (1990).
46. P. ANDREW and M. PICK, "Hydrogen Retention in the First Wall," J. Nucl. Mater., 220-222, 601 (1994).
47. W. ECKSTEIN, "Physical Sputtering and Radiation-Enhanced Sublimation," Physical Processes of the Interaction of Fusion Plasmas with Solids, p. 93, W. O. HOFER and J. ROTH, Eds., Academic Press, Amsterdam, Netherlands (1996).
48. W. ECKSTEIN et al., "Particle Induced Erosion of Be, C and W in Fusion Plasmas, Part B: Physical Sputtering and Radiation-Enhanced Sublimation," Atomic and Plasma-Material Interaction Data for Fusion, Vol. 7B, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna (2001).
49. E. VIETZKE and A. A. HAASZ, "Chemical Erosion," Physical Processes of the Interaction of Fusion Plasmas with Solids, p. 135, W. O. HOFER and J. ROTH, Eds., Academic Press, Amsterdam, Netherlands (1996).
50. A. A. HAASZ, J.A. STEPHENS, E. VIETZKE, W. ECKSTEIN, J. W. DAVIS, and Y. HIROOKA., "Particle-Induced Erosion of Be, C and W in Fusion Plasmas, Part A: Chemical Erosion of Carbon-Based Materials," Atomic and Plasma-Material Interaction Data for Fusion, Vol. 7A, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna (1998).
51. A. A. HAASZ and J. W. DAVIS, "Erosion of Carbon in Dual-Beam Experiments: An Overview," Phys. Scripta, 111, 68 (2004).
52. A. A. HAASZ, P. FRANZEN, J. W. DAVIS, S. CHIU, and C. S. PITCHER, "Two-Region Model for Hydrogen Trapping in and Release from Graphite," J. Appl. Phys., 77, 66 (1995).
53. +," J. Nucl. Mater., 196-198, 972 (1992).
54. W. N. REYNOLDS, Physical Properties of Graphite, Elsevier, Amsterdam (1968).
55. R.-D. PENZHORN et al., "Tritium Depth Profiles in Graphite and Carbon Fibre Composite Material Exposed to Tokamak Plasmas," J. Nucl. Mater., 288, 170 (2001).
56. R. A. CAUSEY, M. I. BASKES, and K. L. WILSON, "The Retention of Deuterium and Tritium in POCO AXF-5Q Graphite," J. Vac. Sci. Technol., A4, 1189 (1986).
57. J. ROTH et al., "Deuterium Retention in Carbon Fibre Composites NB31 and N11 Irradiated with Low-Energy D Ions," J. Nucl. Mater., 363-365, 822 (2007).
58. P. HUCKS, K. FLASKAMP, and E. VIETZKE, "The Trapping of Thermal Atomic Hydrogen on Pyrolytic Graphite," J. Nucl Mater., 93-94, 558 (1980).
59. P. C. STANGEBY, O. AUCIELLO, A. A. HAASZ, and B. L. DOYLE, "Trapping of Sub-eV Hydrogen and Deuterium Atoms in Graphite," J. Nucl Mater., 122&123, 1592 (1984).
60. V. CHERNIKOV, A.E. GORODETSKY, S. L. KANASHENKO, A. P. ZAKHAROV, W. R. WAMPLER, and B. L. DOYLE, "Trapping of Deuterium in Boron and Titanium Modified Graphites Before and After Carbon Ion Irradiation," J. Nucl. Mater., 217, 250 (1994).
61. R. C. BANSAL, F. J. VASTOLA, and P. L. WALKER Jr., "Studies on Ultra-Clean Carbon Surfaces - III. Kinetics of Chemisorption of Hydrogen on Graphon," Carbon, 9, 185 (1990).
62. R. A. STREHLOW, "Chemisorption of Tritium on Graphites at Elevated Temperature," J. Vac. Sci, Technol. A, 4, 1183 (1986).
63. R. A. CAUSEY, "The Interaction of Tritium with Graphite and Its Impact on Tokamak Operations," J. Nucl. Mater., 162-164, 151 (1989).
64. H. ATSUMI, S. TOKURA, and M. MIYAKE, "Absorption and Desorption of Deuterium on Graphite at Elevated Temperatures," J. Nucl. Mater., 155-157, 241 (1988).
65. R. A. CAUSEY, T. S. ELLEMAN, and K. VERGHESE, "Hydrogen Diffusion and Solubility in Pyrolytic Carbon," Carbon, 17, 323 (1979).
66. H. D. ROHRIG, P. G. FISCHER, and R. HECKER, "Tritium Balance in High-Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactors," J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 59, 316 (1976).
67. V. MALKA, H. D. ROHRIG, and R. HECKER, "Investigations on Sorption and Diffusion of Tritium in HTGR-Graphite," Proc. Conf. Tritium Technology in Fission, Fusion, and Isotope Applications, 1980, p. 102.
68. o Atom Impact on Pyrolytic Graphite," J. Nucl. Mater., 155-157, 234 (1988).
69. A. A. HAASZ and J. W. DAVIS, "Comparison of the Chemical Erosion of Carbon/Carbon Composites and Pyrolytic Graphite," J. Nucl. Mater., 175, 84 (1990).
70. J. W. DAVIS and A. A. HAASZ, "Chemical Erosion of Carbon/Carbon Composites Doped with Boron and Silicon," J. Nucl. Mater., 195, 166 (1992).
71. + Impact on Graphite," J. Nucl. Mater., 255, 153 (1998).
72. E. SALONEN, K. NORDLUND, J. KEINONEN, and C. H. WU, "Swift Chemical Sputtering of Amorphous Hydrogenated Carbon," Phys. Rev. B, 63, 195415 (2001).
73. L. I. VERGARA et al., "Methane Production from ATJ Graphite by Slow Atomic and Molecular D Ions: Evidence for Projectile Molecule-Size-Dependent Yields at Low Energies," J. Nucl. Mater., 357, 9 (2006).
74. R. G. MACAULAY-NEWCOMBE, A. A. HAASZ, and J. W. DAVIS, "Low-Energy Tritium Ion Erosion of Graphite," J. Nucl. Mater., 337-339, 857 (2005).
75. + Impact," J. Appl. Phys., 84, 1655 (1998).
76. A. A. HAASZ and J. W. DAVIS, "Hydrogen Isotope Effects on the Erosion of Carbon," Fusion Sci. Technol., 50, 58 (2006).
77. M. BALDEN and J. ROTH, "New Weight-Loss Measurements of the Chemical Erosion Yields of Carbon Materials Under Hydrogen Ion Bombardment," J. Nucl. Mater., 280, 39 (2000).
78. W. ECKSTEIN, C. GARCIA-ROSALES, J. ROTH, and W. OTTENBERGER, "Sputtering Data," IPP Garching Report IPP 9/82, Max-Planck-Institut für Plasmaphysik (1993).
79. S. J. STUART, P. S. KRSTIC, T. A. EMBRY, and C. O. REINHOLD, "Methane Production by Deuterium Impact at Carbon Surfaces," Nucl. Instrum. Methods B, 255, 202 (2007).
80. C. HOPF, A. VON KEUDEL, and W. JACOB, "Chemical Sputtering of Hydrocarbon Films," J. Appl. Phys., 94, 2373 (2003).
81. D. G. WHYTE et al., "Reduction of Divertor Carbon Sources in DIII-D," J. Nucl. Mater., 290-293, 356 (2001).
82. G. M. WRIGHT, A. A. HAASZ, J. W. DAVIS, and R. G. MACAULAY-NEWCOMBE, "Chemical Erosion of DIII-D Lower Divertor Tiles," J. Nucl. Mater., 337-339, 74 (2005).
83. J. P. COAD, M. RUBEL, and C. H. WU, "The Amount and Distribution of Deuterium Retained in the JET Divertor After the C and Be Phases in 1994-95," J. Nucl. Mater., 241-243, 408 (1997).
84. J. P. COAD et al., "Evidence for Impurity Drift in the Scrape-Off Layer of JET," Europhysics Conference Abstracts: Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, Maastricht, Holland, June 14-18, 1999, Vol. 23J, p. 53, European Physical Society (1999).
85. J. P. COAD et al., "Erosion/Deposition Issues at JET," J. Nucl. Mater., 290-293, 224 (2001).
86. J. P. COAD et al., "Overview of Material Re-Deposition and Fuel Retention Studies at JET with the Gas Box Divertor," Nucl. Fusion, 46, 350 (2006).
87. J. P. COAD et al., "Erosion and Deposition in the JET MkII-SRP Divertor," J. Nucl. Mater., 363-365, 287 (2007).
88. M. MAYER, R. BEHRISCH, K. PLAMANN, P. L. ANDREW, J. P. COAD, and A. T. PEACOCK, "Wall Erosion and Material Transport to the Mark I Carbon Divertor of JET," J. Nucl. Mater., 266-269, 604 (1999).
89. J. P. COAD et al., "Erosion/Deposition in JET During the Period 1999-2001," J. Nucl. Mater., 313-316, 419 (2003).
90. H.-G. ESSER et al., "Effect of Plasma Configuration on Carbon Migration Measured in the Inner Divertor of JET Using Quartz Microbalance," J. Nucl. Mater., 337-339, 84 (2005).
91. G. F. MATTHEWS et al., "Material Migration in JET," Europhysics Conference Abstracts: Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, St. Petersburg, Russia, July 7-11, 2003, Vol. 27A, P-3.198, European Physical Society (2003).
92. K. KRIEGER et al., "Erosion and Migration of Tungsten Employed at the Central Column Heat Shield of ASDEX Upgrade," J. Nucl. Mater., 307-311, 139 (2002).
93. T. PÜTTERICH et al., "Carbon Influx Studies in the Main Chamber of ASDEX Upgrade," Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion, 45, 1873 (2003).
94. R. DUX et al., "Tungsten Erosion at the ICRH Limiters in ASDEX Upgrade," J. Nucl. Mater., 363-365, 112 (2007).
95. M. MAYER et al., "Carbon Erosion and Migration in Fusion Devices," Phys. Scripta, T111, 55 (2004).
96. M. MAYER et al., "Carbon Erosion and Deposition on the ASDEX Upgrade Divertor Tiles," J. Nucl. Mater., 337-339, 119 (2005).
97. M. MAYER et al., "Erosion of Tungsten and Carbon Markers in the Outer Divertor of ASDEX-Upgrade," Phys. Scripta, T128, 106 (2007).
98. A. KALLENBACH et al., "Spectroscopic Investigation of Carbon Migration with Tungsten Walls in ASDEX Upgrade," J. Nucl. Mater., 363-365, 60 (2007).
99. M. MAYER, V. ROHDE, A. VON KEUDELL, and ASDEX-UPGRADE TEAM, "Characterisation of Deposited Hydrocarbon Layers Below the Divertor and in the Pumping Ducts of ASDEX Upgrade," J. Nucl. Mater., 313-316, 429 (2003).
100. M. MAYER, V. ROHDE, and ASDEX-UPGRADE TEAM, "Further Insight into the Mechanism of Hydrocarbon Layer Formation Below the Divertor of ASDEX Upgrade," Nucl. Fusion, 46, 914 (2006).
101. K. KRIEGER et al., "Formation of Deuterium-Carbon Inventories in Gaps of Plasma Facing Components," J. Nucl. Mater., 363-365, 870 (2007).
102. V. ROHDE, M. MAYER, J. LIKONEN, R. NEU, T. PÜTTERICH, and E. VAINONEN-AHLGREN, "Carbon Erosion and a:C-H Layer Formation at ASDEX Upgrade," J. Nucl. Mater., 337-339, 847 (2005).
103. W. JACOB, "Redeposition of Hydrocarbon Layers in Fusion Devices," J. Nucl. Mater., 337-339, 839 (2005).
104. M. MAYER et al., "Hydrogen Inventories in Nuclear Fusion Devices," J. Nucl. Mater., 290-293, 381 (2001).
105. C. H. SKINNER et al., "Studies of Tritiated Co-Deposited Layers in TFTR," J. Nucl. Mater., 290-293, 486 (2001).
106. G. HAAS, R. MAINGI, J. NEUHAUSER, ASDEX-UPGRADE TEAM, and DIII-D TEAM, "Dynamic Retention in the Walls of the Tokamaks ASDEX Upgrade and DIII-D," J. Nucl. Mater., 266-269, 1065 (1999).
107. W. R. WAMPLER, "Ion Beam Analysis for Fusion Energy Research," Nucl. Instrum. Methods B, 219-220, 836 (2004).
108. J. E. MENARD et al., "Overview of Recent Physics Results from the National Spherical Torus Experiment (NSTX)," Nucl. Fusion, 47, S645 (2007).
109. C. H. SKINNER, H. KUGEL, A. L. ROQUEMORE, J. HOGAN, W. R. WAMPLER, and NSTX TEAM, "Time-Resolved Deposition Measurements in NSTX," J. Nucl. Mater., 337-339, 129 (2005).
110. C. H. SKINNER et al., "Pulse-by-Pulse Measurements of Dynamic Retention and Deposition in NSTX" J. Nucl. Mater., 363-365, 247 (2007).
111. K. SUGIYAMA, T. TANABE, K. MASAKI, and N. MTYA, "Tritium Distribution Measurement of the Tile Gap of JT-60U," J. Nucl. Mater., 367-370, 1248 (2007).
112. K. MASAKI et al., "Retention Characteristics of Hydrogen Isotopes in JT-60U," J. Nucl. Mater., 337-339, 553 (2005).
113. T. TANABE et al., "Tritium Retention and Carbon Deposition on Plasma Facing Materials," J. Nucl. Mater., 345, 89 (2005).
114. T. SHIBAHARA et al., "Hydrogen Isotope Retention of JT- 60U W-Shaped Divertor Tiles Exposed to DD Discharges," J. Nucl. Mater., 356, 115 (2006).
115. Y. GOTOH et al., "Long-Term Erosion and Re-Deposition of Carbon in the Divertor Region of JT-60U," J. Nucl. Mater., 356, 138 (2006).
116. K. SUGIYAMA et al., "Ion Beam Analysis of H and D Retention in the Near Surface Layers of JT-60U Plasma Facing Wall Tiles," J. Nucl. Mater., 363-365, 949 (2007).
117. J. P. SHARPE et al., "Characterization of Dust Collected from NSTX and JT-60U," J. Nucl. Mater., 337-339, 1004 (2005).
118. H. TAKENAGA et al., "Study of Global Wall Saturation Mechanisms in Long-Pulse ELMy H-Mode Discharges on JT-60U," Nucl. Fusion, 46, S39 (2006).
119. K. MASAKI et al., "Tritium Distribution in JT-60U W-Shaped Divertor," J. Nucl. Mater., 313-316, 514 (2003).
120. T. TANABE, "On the Possibility of ITER Starting with Full Carbon," Fusion Eng. Des., 81, 139 (2006).
121. T. TANABE et al., "Imaging Plate Technique for Determination of Tritium Distribution of Graphite Tiles of JT-60U," J. Nucl. Mater., 307-311, 1441 (2002).
122. P. WIENHOLD et al., "Investigation of Carbon Transport in the Scrape-Off Layer of TEXTOR-94," J. Nucl. Mater., 290-293, 362 (2001).
123. 4 Injection Through Graphite and Tungsten Test Limiters in TEXTOR," Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion, 48, 1401 (2006).
124. J. LIKONEN et al., "Studies of Impurity Deposition/Implantation in JET Divertor Tiles Using SIMS and Ion Beam Techniques," Fusion Eng. Des., 66-68, 219 (2003).
125. 13C from Methane Injection into Outer Divertor Plasma in JT-60U," Europhysics Conference Abstracts: 34th Conf. Plasma Physics, Warsaw, Poland, July 2-6, 2007, Vol. 31F, p. P-1.024, European Physical Society (2007).
126. 13C Deposition in ASDEX Upgrade," J. Nucl. Mater., 337-339, 55 (2005).
127. 13C Transport Studies in L-Mode Divertor Plasmas on DIII-D," J. Nucl. Mater., 337-339, 30 (2005).
128. W. R. WAMPLER et al., "Measurements of Carbon, Deuterium and Boron Deposition in DIII-D," J. Nucl. Mater., 337-339, 134 (2005).
129. 13C from Methane Injection into Partially Detached H-Mode Plasmas in DIH-D," J. Nucl. Mater., 363-365, 72 (2007).
130. 4 Puffing Experiment," J. Nucl. Mater., 363-365, 140 (2007).
131. A. G. McLEAN et al., "Spectroscopic Characterization and Simulation of Chemical Sputtering Using the DiMES Porous Plug Injector in DIII-D," J. Nucl. Mater., 363-365, 86 (2007).
132. A. G. McLEAN et al, "Characterization of Chemical Sputtering Using the Mark II DiMES Porous Plug Injector in Attached and Detached Divertor Plasmas of DIII-D," presented at 18th Int. Conf. Plasma Surface Interactions, Toledo, Spain, May 26-30, 2008, J. Nucl. Mater, (submitted for publication).
133. B. L. DOYLE, W. R. WAMPLER, D. K. BRICE, and S. T. PICRAUX, "Saturation and Isotopic Replacement of Deuterium in Low-Z Materials," J. Nucl. Mater., 93-94, 551 (1980).
134. G. STAUDENMAIER et al., "Trapping of Deuterium Implanted in Carbon and Silicon: A Calibration for Particle-Energy Measurements in the Plasma Boundary of Tokamaks," J. Nucl. Mater., 84, 149 (1979).
135. A. A. HAASZ and J. W. DAVIS, "Fluence Dependence of Deuterium Trapping in Graphite," J. Nucl. Mater., 209, 155 (1994).
136. M. BALDEN et al., "Deuterium Retention by Implantation in Carbide-Doped Graphites," Phys. Scripta, T102, 38 (2003).
137. A. A. HAASZ and J. W. DAVIS, "Deuterium Retention in Doped Graphites," J. Nucl. Mater., 232, 219 (1996).
138. + Trapping in Graphite," J. Nucl. Mater., 176&177, 992 (1990).
139. V. Kh. ALIMOV and J. ROTH, "Hydrogen Isotope Retention in Plasma-Facing Materials: Review of Recent Experimental Results," Phys. Scripta, T128, 6 (2007).
140. B. EMMOTH, M. RUBEL, and E. FRANCONI, "Deep Penetration of Deuterium in Carbon Based Substrates Exposed to PISCES-A Plasma," Nucl. Fusion, 30, 1140 (1990).
141. R.-D. PENZHORN et al., "Tritium in Plasma Facing Components," Fusion Eng. Des., 56&57, 105 (2001).
142. N. BEKRIS et al., "Tritium Depth Profiles in 2D and 4D CFC Tiles from JET and TFTR," J. Nucl. Mater., 313-316, 501 (2003).
143. J. ROTH et al., "Trapping, Detrapping and Replacement of keV Hydrogen Implanted into Graphite," J. Nucl. Mater., 93&94, 601 (1980).
144. J. BUCALOSSI et al. "Deuterium In-Vessel Retention Characterisation Through the Use of Particle Balance on Tore Supra," J. Nucl. Mater., 363-365, 759 (2007).
145. A. PISAREV et al., "Thermal Desorption of Deuterium from Graphite After Ion Implantation, Plasma Impact, and Exposure in Gas," presented at 17th Int. Vacuum Congress, Stock-holm, Sweden, July 2-6, 2007, Rep. PSTF07-Or2.
146. R. SARTORI, G. SAIBENE, D. H. J. GOODALL, E. USSELMANN, J. P. COAD, and D. HOLLAND, "Deuterium Release Measurements in the Be Phase of JET and Determination of Tritium Content in the Exhaust Gas," J. Nucl. Mater., 176&177, 624 (1990).
147. J. P. COAD, "An Appraisal of Deuterium Retention in JET," J. Nucl. Mater., 226, 156 (1995).
148. T. LOARER, "Fuel Retention in Tokamaks," presented at 18th Int. Conf. Plasma Surface Interactions, Toledo, Spain, May 26-30 2008, J. Nucl. Mater, (submitted for publication).
149. C. H. SKINNER et al., "Modeling of Tritium Retention in TFTR," J. Nucl. Mater., 266-269, 940 (1999).
150. R.-D. PENZHORN et al., "Tritium Profiles in Tiles from the First Wall of Fusion Machines and Techniques for Their Detritiation," J. Nucl. Mater., 279, 139 (2000).
151. M. MAYER et al., "The Deuterium Inventory in ASDEX Upgrade," Nucl. Fusion, 47, 1607 (2007).
152. M. MAYER et al., "Carbon Deposition and Deuterium Inventory in ASDEX Upgrade," Proc. 20th IAEA Fusion Energy Conf., IAEA-CN-116/EX/5-24, International Atomic Energy Agency (2005).
153. K. SUGIYAMA, T. TANABE, C. H. SKINNER, and C. A. GENTILE, "Measurement of Tritium Surface Distribution on TFTR Bumper Limiter Tiles," Phys. Scripta, T108, 68 (2004).
154. T. TANABE et al., "Tritium Distribution Measurement of JET Mk IIGB Divertor Tiles," J. Nucl. Mater., 363-365, 949 (2007).
155. T. TANABE et al, "Tritium Retention of Plasma Facing Components in Tokamaks," J. Nucl. Mater., 313-316, 478 (2003).
156. V. ROHDE, M. MAYER, and ASDEX-UPGRADE TEAM, "On the Formation of a-C:D Layers and Parasitic Plasmas Underneath the Roof Baffle of the ASDEX-Upgrade Divertor," J. Nucl. Mater., 313-316, 337 (2003).
157. K. OHYA, T. TANABE, and J. KAWATA, "Simulation of Redeposition Patterns of Hydrocarbons Released from Carbon Target in Divertors," Fusion Eng. Des., 81, 205 (2006).
158. K. INAI and K. OHAYA, "Simulation of Hydrocarbon Redeposition in the Gaps Between Divertor Tiles," J. Nucl. Mater., 363-365, 915 (2007).
159. R. A. CAUSEY, W. L. CHRISMAN, J. CRAWFORD, and J. M. GAHL, "Tritium Retention in Tokamak Disruption-Produced Carbon Debris," J. Nucl. Mater., 210, 333 (1994).
160. W. J. CARMACK, R. A. ANDERL, R. J. PAWELKO, G. L. SMOLIK, and K. A. McCARTHY, "Characterization and Analysis of Dusts Produced in Three Experimental Tokamaks: TFTR, DIII-D, and Alcator C-Mod," Fusion Eng. Des., 51-52, 477 (2000).
161. C. H. SKINNER, C. A. GENTILE, M. M. MENON, and R. E. BARRY, "Flaking of Co-Deposited Hydrogenated Carbon Layers on the TFTR Limiter," Nucl. Fusion, 39, 1081 (1999).
162. C.H. SKINNER, C. A. GENTILE, L. CHIBIERA, and S. LANGISH, "Tritiated Dust Levitation by Beta Induced Static Charge," Fusion Sci. Technol., 45, 11 (2004).
163. N. BEKRIS and R.-D. PENZHORN, "Characterization of Dust and Flakes Generated in Fusion Machines after DD and DT Operations," Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe Wissenschaftliche Berichte, Report No. FZKA 6858 (2003).
164. A. L. ROQUEMORE et al., "3D Measurements of Mobile Dust Particle Trajectories in NSTX," J. Nucl. Mater., 363-365, 222 (2007).
165. A. BADER, C. H. SKINNER, A. L. ROQUEMORE, and S LANGISH, "Development of an Electrostatic Dust Detector for Use in a Tokamak Reactor," Rev. Sci Instrum., 75, 370 (2004).
166. C. H. SKINNER, A. L. ROQUEMORE, A. BADER, W. R. WAMPLER, and NSTX TEAM, "Deposition Diagnostics for Next-Step Devices," Rev. Sci. Instrum., 75, 4213 (2004).
167. C. VOINIER, C. H. SKINNER and A. L. ROQUEMORE, "Electrostatic Dust Detection on Remote Surfaces," J. Nucl. Mater., 346, 266 (2005).
168. C. V. PARKER, C. H. SKINNER, and A. L. ROQUE-MORE, "Controlling Surface Dust in a Tokamak," J. Nucl. Mater., 363-365, 1461 (2007).
169. R. A. CAUSEY and T. J. VENHAUS, "The Use of Tungsten in Fusion Reactors: A Review of the Hydrogen Retention and Migration Properties," Phys. Scripta, T94, 9 (2001).
170. G. R. LONGHURST, "TMAP7: Tritium Migration Analysis Program, User Manual," INEEL/EXT-04-02352, Idaho National Laboratory (2004).
171. +-Irradiated Tungsten," J. Nucl Mater., 374, 390 (2008).
172. R. FRAUENFELDER, "Solution and Diffusion of Hydrogen in Tungsten," J. Vac. Sci. Technol., 6, 388 (1969).
173. L. N. RYABCHIKOV, "Mass Spectrometric Investigation of the Degassing of Molybdenum, Tungsten and Niobium on Heating Them in Vacuum," Ukr. Fiz. Zh., 9, 293 (1964).
174. A. P. ZAKHAROV, V. M. SHARAPOV, and E. I. EVKO, "Hydrogen Permeability of Mono- and Poly-Crystals of Molybdenum and Tungsten," Fiz. Khim. Mekh. Mater., 9, 2, 29 (1973).
175. G. BENAMATI, E. SERRA, and C. H. WU, "Hydrogen and Deuterium Transport and Inventory Parameters Through W and W-Alloys for Fusion Reactor Applications," J. Nucl. Mater., 283-287, 1033 (2000).
176. C. GARCIA-ROSALES, P. FRANZEN, H. PLANK, J. ROTH, and E. GAUTHIER, "Re-Emission and Thermal Desorption of Deuterium from Plasma Sprayed Tungsten Coatings for Application in ASDEX-Upgrade," J. Nucl. Mater., 233-237, 803 (1996).
177. P. FRANZEN, C. GARCIA-ROSALES, H. PLANK, and V. ALIMOV, "Hydrogen Trapping in and Release from Tungsten: Modeling and Comparison with Graphite with Regard to Its Use as Fusion Reactor Material," J. Nucl. Mater., 241-243, 1082 (1997).
178. A. MAZAYEV, R. AVARBE, and Y VILK, "Solubility of Hydrogen in Tungsten at High Temperatures and Pressures," Izv. Akad. Nauk. USSR Metally, 6, 233 (1968).
179. R. FRAUENFELDER, "Permeation of Hydrogen Through Tungsten and Molybdenum," J. Chem. Phys., 48, 3955 (1967).
180. E. AITKEN H. BRASSVIE, P. CONN, E. DUDERSTA, and R. FRYXELL, "Permeability of Tungsten to Hydrogen from 1300 Degrees to 2600 Degrees C and to Oxygen from 2000 Degrees to 2300 Degrees C," Trans. Met. Soc. AIME, 239, 1565 (1967).
181. R. A. ANDERL, D. HOLLAND, G. LONGHURST, R. PAWELKO, C. TRYBUS, and C. SELLERS, "Deuterium Transport and Trapping in Polycrystaline Tungsten," Fusion Technol., 21, 745 (1992).
182. T. NAGASAKI, M. SAIDOH, R. YAMADA, and H. OHNO, "Ion-Driven Permeation and Surface Recombination Coefficient of Deuterium for Iron," J. Nucl. Mater., 202, 228 (1993).
183. I. TAKAGI, H. FUJITA, and K. HIGASHI, "Experiments on Potential Energy Diagram for Hydrogen Isotopes on Nickel Surface," J. Nucl. Mater., 266-269, 697 (1999).
184. R. CAUSEY, K. WILSON, T. VENHAUS, and W. WAMPLER, "Tritium Retention in Tungsten Exposed to Intense Fluxes of 100 eV Tritons," J. Nucl. Mater., 266-269, 467 (1999).
185. A. HAASZ, J. DAVIS, M. POON, and R. MACAULAY-NEWCOMBE, "Deuterium Retention in Tungsten for Fusion Use," J. Nucl. Mater., 258-263, 889 (1998).
186. 4He Nuclear Reaction and Depth Profiling of Deuterium up to Large Depths," Nucl. Instrum. Methods B, 234, 169 (2005).
187. V. KH. ALIMOV, J. ROTH, and M. MAYER, "Depth Distribution of Deuterium in Single- and Polycrystalline Tungsten up to Depths of Several Micrometers," J. Nucl. Mater., 337-339, 619 (2005).
188. V. KH. ALIMOV and J. ROTH, "Hydrogen Isotope Retention in Plasma-Facing Materials: Review of Recent Experimental Results," Phys. Scripta, T128, 6 (2007).
189. A. VAN VEEN, J. DE VRIES, D. SEGERS, and G. J. ROZING, "Hydrogen Defect Interaction in Tungsten Observed with PA," Positron Annihilation, p. 543, P. C. JAIN, R. M. SINGRU, and K. P. GOPINATHAN, Eds., World Scientific Publishing Company, Singapore (1985).
190. A. A. HAASZ, M. POON, and J. W. DAVIS, "The Effect of Ion Damage on Deuterium Trapping in Tungsten," J. Nucl. Mater., 266-269, 520 (1999).
191. T. VENHAUS, R. CAUSEY, R. DOERNER, and T. ABELN, "Behavior of Tungsten Exposed to High Fluences of Low Energy Hydrogen Isotopes," J. Nucl. Mater., 290-293, 505 (2001).
192. W. WANG, J. ROTH, S. LINDIG, and C. H. WU, "Blister Formation of Tungsten due to Ion Bombardment," J. Nucl. Mater., 299, 124 (2001).
193. M. Y. YE, H. KANEHARA, S. FUKUDA, N. OHNO, and S. TAKAMURA, "Blister Formation on Tungsten Surface Under Low Energy and High Flux Hydrogen Plasma Irradiation in NAGDIS-I," J. Nucl. Mater., 313-316, 72 (2003).
194. T. SHIMADA, Y. UEDA, and M. NISHIKAWA, "Mechanism of Blister Formation on Tungsten Surface," Fusion Eng. Des., 66-68, 247 (2003).
195. Y. UEDA, T. SHIMADA, and M. NISHIKAWA, "Impact of Carbon Impurities in Hydrogen Plasmas on Tungsten Blistering," Nucl. Fusion, 44, 62 (2004).
196. K. TOKUNAGA et al., "Blister Formation and Deuterium Retention on Tungsten Exposed to Low Energy and High Flux Deuterium Plasma," J. Nucl. Mater., 337-339, 887 (2005).
197. G.-N. LUO, W. M. SHU, and M. NISHI, "Incident Energy Dependence of Blistering at Tungsten Irradiated by Low Energy High Flux Deuterium Plasma Beams," J. Nucl. Mater., 347, 111 (2005).
198. G.-N. LUO, W. M. SHU, and M. NISHI, "Influence of Blistering on Deuterium Retention in Tungsten Irradiated by High Flux Deuterium 10-100 eV Plasmas," Fusion Eng. Des., 81, 957 (2006).
199. J. H. EVANS, "The Role of Implanted Gas and Lateral Stress in Blister Formation Mechanisms," J. Nucl. Mater., 76&77, 228 (1978).
200. S. K. DAS, M. KAMINSKY, and G. FENSKE, "On the Correlation of Blister Diameter and Blister Skin Thickness in Helium-Ion-Irradiated Nb," J. Appl. Phys., 50, 3304 (1979).
201. J. ROTH, "Blistering and Bubble Formation," Applications of Ion Beams to Materials, p. 280, G. CARTER, J. S. COLLIGAN, and N. A. GRANT, Eds., The Institute of Physics, London (1976).
202. E. P. EERNISSE and S. T. PICRAUX, "Role Integrated Lateral Stress in Surface Deformation of He-Implanted Surfaces," J. Appl. Phys., 48, 9 (1977).
203. J. B. CONDON and T. SCHOBER, "Hydrogen Bubbles in Metals," J. Nucl. Mater., 207, 1 (1993).
204. V. KH. ALIMOV, A. V. GOLUBEVA, and J. ROTH (2006) (unpublished).
205. A. A. HAASZ, J. W. DAVIS, M. POON, and R. G. MACAULAY-NEWCOMBE,
206. R. CAUSEY, K. WILSON, T. VENHAUS, and W. R. WAMPLER, "Tritium Retention in Tungsten Exposed to Intense Fluxes of 100 eV Tritons," J. Nucl. Mater., 266-269, 467 (1999).
207. M. POON, R. G. MACAULAY-NEWCOMBE, J. W. DAVIS, and A. A. HAASZ, "Flux Dependence of Deuterium Retention in Single Crystal Tungsten," J. Nucl. Mater., 307-311, 723 (2002).
208. M. POON, A. A. HAASZ, J. W. DAVIS, and R. G. MACAULAY-NEWCOMBE, "Impurity Effects and Temperature Dependence of D Retention in Single Crystal Tungsten," J. Nucl. Mater., 313-316, 199 (2003).
209. + Irradiation on D Trapping in Single Crystal Tungsten," J. Nucl. Mater., 337-339, 629 (2005).
210. M. W THOMPSON, Defects and Radiation Damage in Metals, Cambridge University (1969).
211. +-Irradiation Time Delay and Pre-TDS Heating on D Retention in Single Crystal Tungsten," J. Nucl. Mater., 359, 8 (2006).
212. H. ELEVELD and A. VAN VEEN, "Void Growth and Thermal Desorption of Deuterium from Voids in Tungsten," J. Nucl. Mater., 212-215, 1421 (1994).
213. A. V. GOLUBEVA, M. MAYER, J. ROTH, V. A. KURNAEV, and O. V. OGORODNIKOVA, "Deuterium Retention in Rhenium-Doped Tungsten," J. Nucl. Mater., 363-365, 893 (2007).
214. H. T. LEE, A. A. HAASZ, J. W DAVIS, and R. G. MACAULAY-NEWCOMBE, "Hydrogen and Helium Trapping in Tungsten Under Single and Sequential Irradiations," J. Nucl. Mater., 360, 196 (2007).
215. H. T. LEE, A. A. HAASZ, J. W. DAVIS, R. G. MACAULAY-NEWCOMBE, D. G. WHYTE, and G. M. WRIGHT, "Hydrogen and Helium Trapping in Tungsten Under Simultaneous Irradiations," J. Nucl. Mater., 363-365, 898 (2007).
216. J. R. FRANSENS, M. S. ABD EL KERIEM, and F. PLEITER, "Hydrogen- Vacancy Interaction in Tungsten," J. Phys. Condens. Mater., 3, 9871 (1991).
217. V. KH. ALIMOV, K. ERTL, J. ROTH, and K. SCHMID, "Deuterium Retention and Lattice Damage in Tungsten Irradiated with D Ions," Phys. Scripta, T94, 34 (2001).
218. M. MAYER et al., "Carbon Balance and Deuterium Inventory from a Carbon Dominated to a Full Tungsten ASDEX-Upgrade," presented at 18th Int. Conf. Plasma Surface Interactions, Toledo, Spain, May 26-30, 2008, J. Nucl. Mater, (submitted for publication).
219. R. P. DOERNER, "The Implications of Mixed-Material Plasma-Facing Surfaces in ITER" J. Nucl. Mater., 363-365, 32 (2007).
220. D. M. GOEBEL, G. CAMPBELL, and R. W. CONN, "Plasma-Surface Interaction Experimental Facility (PISCES) for Materials and Edge Physics Studies," J. Nucl. Mater., 121, 277 (1984).
221. R. P. DOERNER, M. J. BALDWIN, and K. SCHMID, "The Influence of a Beryllium Containing Plasma on the Evolution of a Mixed-Material Surface," Phys. Scripta, T111, 75 (2004).
222. K. SCHMID, M. BALDWIN, R. DOERNER, and A. WILTNER, "Influence of Beryllium Plasma Impurities on the Erosion of Graphite," Nucl. Fusion, 44, 815 (2004).
223. K. SCHMID, M. BALDWIN, and R. DOERNER, "Influence of Beryllium Plasma Seeding on the Erosion of Carbon," J. Nucl. Mater., 337-339, 862 (2005).
224. M. J. BALDWIN, K. SCHMID, R. P. DOERNER, A. WILTNER, R. SERAYDARIAN, and CH. LINSMEIER, "Composition and Hydrogen Isotope Retention Analysis of Codeposited C/Be Layers," J. Nucl. Mater., 337-339, 590 (2005).
225. D. NISHUIMA, M. J. BALDWIN, R. P. DOERNER, and R. SERAYDARIAN, "Parametric Studies of Carbon Erosion Mitigation Dynamics in Beryllium Seeded Deuterium Plasmas," J. Nucl. Mater., 363-365, 1261 (2007).
226. M. J. BALDWIN and R. P. DOERNER, "A Time Resolved Study of the Mitigation of Graphite Chemical Erosion in Deuterium Plasmas Containing Beryllium," Nucl. Fusion, 46, 444 (2006).
227. R. P. DOERNER et al., "Interaction of Beryllium Containing Plasma with ITER Materials," Phys. Scripta, T128, 115 (2007).
228. M. J. BALDWIN et al., "Mixed-Material Layer Formation on Graphite Exposed to Deuterium Plasmas Containing Beryllium," J. Nucl. Mater., 358, 96 (2006).
229. R. P. DOERNER, A. A. GROSSMAN, S. LUCKHARDT, R. SERAYDARIAN, F. C. SZE, and D. G. WHYTE, "Mixed-Material Coating Formation on Plasma Facing Components," J. Nucl. Mater., 266-269, 392 (1999).
230. H. OKAMOTO and L. E. TANNER, in Phase Diagrams of Binary Tungsten Alloys, S. V. NAGENDRA NAIDU and P. RAMO RAO, Eds., Indian Institute of Metals, Calcutta, India (1991).
231. R. P. DOERNER, M. J. BALDWIN, and R. A. CAUSEY, "Beryllium-Tungsten Mixed-Material Interactions," J. Nucl. Mater., 342, 63 (2005).
232. M. J. BALDWIN, D. BUCHENAUER, R. P. DOERNER, R. A. CAUSEY, W. M. CLIFT, and K. SCHMID, "Be-W Alloy Formation in Static and Divertor-Plasma Simulator Experiments," J. Nucl. Mater., 363-365, 1179 (2007).
233. CH. LINSMEIER et al., "Binary Beryllium-Tungsten Mixed Materials," J. Nucl. Mater., 363-365, 1129 (2007).
234. V. KH. ALIMOV and J. ROTH, Personal Communication.
235. 2 Atmosphere," J. Nucl. Mater., 313-316, 599 (2003).
236. H. YOSHIDA et al., "Deuterium Retention in Carbon Dust and Carbon-Tungsten Mixed Dust Prepared by Deuterium Arc Discharge," J. Nucl. Mater., 329-333, 790 (2004).
237. K. KATAYAMA, T. KAWASAKI, Y. MANABE, H. NAGASE, T. TAKRISHI, and M. NISHIKAWA, "Hydrogen Retention in Carbon-Tungsten Co-Deposition Layer Formed by Hydrogen RF Plasma," Thin Solid Films, 506-507, 188 (2006).
238. M. POON, J. W. DAVIS, and A. A. HAASZ, "Effect of Carbon Pre-Implantation on Deuterium Retention in Tungsten," J. Nucl, Mater., 283-287, 1062 (2000).
239. S. K. ERENTS, R. A. PITTS, W. FUNDAMENSKI, J. P. GUNN, and G. F. MATTHEWS, "A Comparison of Experimental Measurements and Code Results to Determine Hows in the JET SOL," Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion, 46, 1757 (2004).
240. J. P. COAD et al., "Erosion/Deposition Issues at JET," J. Nucl. Mater., 290-293, 224 (2001).
241. G. FEDERICI et al., "Assessment of Erosion and Tritium Codeposition in ITER-Feat," J. Nucl. Mater., 290-293, 260 (2001).
242. C. H. SKTNNER and G. FEDERICI, "Is Carbon a Realistic Choice for ITER'S Divertor?" Phys. Scripta, T124, 18 (2006).
243. A. A. HAASZ, S. CHIU, J. E. PIERRE, and Y I. GUDIMENKO, "Thermo-Oxidative Erosion of Amorphous Hydrogenated Carbon Films," J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A, 14, 184 (1996).
244. S. ALBERICI, H. K. HINSSEN, R. MOORNMANN, and C. H. WU, "Deuterium Release Rates in a-C:D-Layers During Oxygen Attack," J. Nucl. Mater., 266-269, 754 (1999).
245. A. A. HAASZ, C. TSUI, J. W. DAVIS, and R. OCHOUKOV, "Thermo- Oxidation of Codeposits from DIII-D Divertor Tiles," Phys. Scripta, T128, 55 (2007).
246. R. OCHOUKOV, A. A. HAASZ, and J. W. DAVIS, "Pressure Dependence of Oxidative Removal of Tokamak Codeposits," Phys. Scripta, T124, 27 (2006).
247. J. W. DAVIS, P. B. WRIGHT, R. G. MACAULAY-NEWCOMBE, A. A. HAASZ, and C. G. HAMILTON, "Chemical Erosion of Boronized Films from DIH-D Tiles," J. Nucl. Mater., 290-293, 66 (2001).
248. P. B. WRIGHT, J. W. DAVIS, R. G. MACAULAY-NEWCOMBE, C. G. HAMILTON, and A. A. HAASZ, "Chemical Erosion of DIII-D Divertor Tile Specimens," J. Nucl. Mater., 313-316, 158 (2003).
249. J. W. DAVIS and A. A. HAASZ, "Oxygen Removal of Codeposited a-C:D Layers from Tokamak Tiles," J. Nucl Mater., 266-269, 478 (1999).
250. 2 Erosion of Graphite Tile Substrates," J. Nucl. Mater., 288, 148 (2001).
251. C. K. TSUI, A. A. HAASZ, J. W. DAVIS, J. P. COAD, and J. LIKONEN, "Thermo-Oxidation of Be-Containing Codeposits from JET Divertor Tiles," Nucl. Fusion, 035008 (2008).
252. V. PHILIPPS, H. G. ESSER, and J. VON SEGGERN, "Removal of Redeposited Layers and Hydrogen Release by Oxygen Ventilation of TEXTOR-94," J. Nucl. Mater., 266-269, 386 (1999).
253. J. S. HU, J. G. LI, X. M. WANG, Y. P. ZHAO, and HT-7 TEAM, "Oxidation for Deposits Removal and Hydrogen Release on HT-7," J. Nucl. Mater., 363-365, 862 (2007).
254. C. L. KUNZ, R. A. CAUSEY, M. CLIFT, W. R. WAMPLER, and D. F. COWGILL, "Removal of the Codeposited Carbon Layer Using He-O Glow Discharge," J. Nucl. Mater., 367-370, 1512 (2007).
255. W. L. HSU, "Glow-Discharge Removal of Codeposited Carbon Films in Graphite-Lined Tokamak Reactors," J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A, 7, 1047 (1989).
256. W. JACOB, B. LANDKAMMER, and C. H. WU, "Removal of Codeposited Layers by ECR Discharge Cleaning," J. Nucl. Mater., 266-269, 552 (1999).
257. D. F. COWGILL, Sandia National Laboratories (1992) (unpublished).
258. 2 Laser Heating," Proc. 17th IEEE/NPSS Symp. Fusion Engineering, San Diego, California, 1997, p. 321, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Nuclear and Plasma Sciences Society (1998).
259. D. WATANABE et al., "Properties of Hydrogen Desorption from Co-Deposits on JT-60 Graphite Tile by Pulsed-Laser Ablation," J. Nucl. Mater., 363-365, 972 (2007).
260. K. TUKONAGA, H. YAGI, S. FUKUDA, T. MUROGA, and N. YOSHIDA, "Effects of Deuterium Ion Irradiation on Gas Emission and Sublimation of Graphite by Pulse High Heat Load," J. Nucl. Mater., 212-215, 1467 (1994).
261. D. KEROACK and B. TERREAULT, "Re-Emission of Deuterium Implanted in Carbon by Laser Desorption," J. Nucl. Mater., 231, 47 (1996).
262. Y. OYA et al., "Re-Emission of Deuterium Implanted in Carbon by Laser Desorption," J. Nucl. Mater., 290-293, 469 (2001).
263. W. M. SHU et al., "Tritium Decontamination of TFTR Carbon Tiles Employing Ultra-Violet Light," J. Nucl. Mater., 290-293, 482 (2001).
264. D. D. R. SUMMERS et al., "In-Situ Measurement of Hydrogen Retention in JET Carbon Tiles," J. Nucl. Mater., 290-293, 496 (2001).
265. A. HUBER et al., "In-Situ Measurements of Trapped Hydrogen by Laser by Laser Desorption in TEXTOR-94," Phys. Scripta, T94, 102 (2001).
266. C. H. SKINNER et al., "Tritium Removal from Codeposits on Carbon Tiles by a Scanning Laser," J. Nucl. Mater., 301, 98 (2002).
267. W. M. SHU, Y. KAWAKUBO, and M. F. NISHI, "Tritium Recovery from Co-Deposited Layers Using 193-nm Laser," Appl. Phys. A, 76, 421 (2003).
268. C. H. SKINNER, N. BEKRIS, J. P. COAD, C. A. GENTILE, and M. GLUGLA, "Tritium Removal from JET and TFTR Tiles by a Scanning Laser," J. Nucl. Mater., 313-316, 496 (2003).
269. W. M. SHU, Y KAWAKUBO, K. MASAKI, and M. F. NISHI, "Ablative Removal of Codeposits on JT-60 Carbon Tiles by an Excimer Laser," J. Nucl. Mater., 313-316, 584 (2003).
270. C. H. SKINNER et al., "Thermal Response of Tritiated Codeposits from JET and TFTR to Transient Heat Pulses," Phys. Scripta, T103, 34 (2003).
271. F. LE GUERN, C. HUBERT, S. MOUSSET, E. GAUTHIER, C. BLANC, P. WODLING, and J. M. WEULERSSE, "Laser Ablation Tests Performed on TORE-SUPRA Graphite Samples," J. Nucl. Mater., 410-416, 410 (2004).
272. K. J. GIBSON, G. F. COUNSELL, C. CURRAN, M. J. FORREST, M. J. KAY, and K. G. WATKINS, "The Removal of Co-Deposited Hydrocarbon Films from Plasma Facing Components Using High-Power Pulsed Flashlamp Irradiation," J. Nucl. Mater., 337-339, 565 (2005).
273. B. SCHWEER et al., "Laser Desorption of Deuterium Retained in Re-Deposited Carbon Layers at TEXTOR and JET," J. Nucl. Mater., 337-339, 570 (2005).
274. B. EMMOTH et al., "Fuel Removal from Bumper Limiter Tiles by Using a Pulsed Excimer Laser," J. Nucl. Mater., 337-339 639 (2005).
275. T. SHIBAHARA, Y SAKAWA, and T. TANABE, "Hydrogen Release Behavior from Graphite Under Pulsed Laser Irradiation," J. Nucl. Mater., 337-339, 654 (2005).
276. Y. SAKAWA, T. SHIBAHARA, K. SATO, and T. TANABE, "Pulsed Laser Ablation of Hydrogen-Implanted Graphite Target," J. Plasma Fusion Res. Ser., 7, 138 (2006).
277. Y. SAKAWA, K. SATO, T. SHIBAHARA, and T. TANABE, "Ablation of Hydrogen-Implanted Graphite Target Using Pulsed Laser Beam," Fusion Eng. Des., 81, 381 (2006).
278. E. G. GAMALY, A. V. RODE, andB. LUTHER-DAVIES, "Laser Ablation of Carbon at the Threshold of Plasma Formation," Appl. Phys. A, 69 (Suppl.), S121 (1999).
279. Y. SAKAWA, D. WATANABE, T. SHIBAHARA, K. SUGIYAMA, and T. TANABE, "Pulsed-Laser Ablation of CoDeposits on JT-60 Graphite Tile," J. Nucl. Mater., 367-370, 1516 (2007).
280. A. WIDDOWSON et al., "Efficacy of Photon Cleaning of JET Divertor Tiles," J Nucl. Mater., 363-365, 341 (2007).
281. C. H. SKINNER, C. GENTILE, J. HOSEA, D. MUELLER, G. FEDERICI, and R. HAANGE, "Report on the IEA Workshop Tritium Experience in Large Tokamaks; Application to ITER," Nucl. Fusion, 39, 271 (1999).
282. C. H. SKINNER and G. FEDERICI, "Tritium Issues in Next Step Devices," Proc. Int. Conf. Advanced Diagnostics for Magnetic and Inertial Fusion, Varenna, Italy, September 3-7, 2001, in Advanced Diagnostics for Magnetic and Inertial Fusion, p. 277, P. E. STOTT et al., Eds., Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York (2002).
283. T. ÅKERMARK, B. EMMOTH, and H. BERGSÅKER, "Laser Annealing in Combination with Mass Spectroscopy, A Technique to Study Deuterium on Tokamak Carbon Samples, A Tool for Detritiation," J. Nucl. Mater., 359, 220 (2006).
284. T. ÅKERMARK, B. EMMOTH, and A. PISAREV, Private Communication.
285. A. WIDDOWSON et al., "Detritiation of JET Tiles by Laser Cleaning," J. Fusion Sci. Technol., 54, 51 (2008).
286. N. BEKRIS et al., "Characterisation of Flakes Generated in JET after DD and DT Plasma Operations," J. Nucl. Mater., 337-339, 659 (2005).
287. J. D. COX, "A Bond Energy Scheme for Aliphatic and Benzenoid Compounds," Tetrahedron, 18, 1337 (1962).
288. N. BEKRIS, J. P. COAD, C. H. SKTNNER, C. A. GENTILE, E. DAMM, and W. NAEGLE, "Thermal Release Rate of Tritium Trapped in Bulk and Plasma Exposed Surfaces of Carbon Specimens Obtained from JET Divertor," J. Nucl. Mater., 367-370, 1254 (2007).
289. Y TORIKAI, A. PISAREV, M. MATSUYAMA, and K. WATANABE, Toyama University (2002) (unpublished).
290. M. J. BALDWIN, K. SCHMID, R. P. DOERNER, A. WTLTNER, R. SERAYDARIAN, and C. LINSMEIER, "Composition and Hydrogen Isotope Retention Analysis of CoDeposited C/Be Layers," J. Nucl. Mater., 337-339, 590 (2005).
291. R. A. CAUSEY, W. R. WAMPLER, and D. S. WALSH, "Comparison of the Thermal Stability of the Codeposited Carbon/Hydrogen Layer to That of the Saturated Implant Layer," J. Nucl. Mater., 176&177, 987 (1990). [Note for web searching: this paper is listed as being on p. 992 though the paper version and downloaded article bear the page number 987.]
292. E. B. MESERVEY et al., "The Effect of Plasma Surface Interactions on PLT Plasma Parameters," J. Nucl. Mater., 93-94, 267 (1980).
293. S. CIATTAGLIA et al., "An Integrated Approach of InVacuum Vessel Dust and Tritium Inventory Control in ITER," Proc. Symp. Fusion Technology, Rostock, Germany, September 2008, Fusion Eng. Des. (to be published).