Fumonisins, trichothecenes and zearalenone in cereals

International Journal of Molecular Sciences

Volumn 9, Issue 11, 2008, Pages 2062-2090

  Yazar, Selma ^a   Omurtag, Gülden Z ^a  

^a MARMARA UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

Author keywords

Cereals; Fumonisins; Trichothecenes; Zearalenone

Indexed keywords

FUMONISIN; TRICHOTHECENE DERIVATIVE; ZEARALANONE;

CARCINOGENICITY; CEREAL; CHEMICAL STRUCTURE; CONTAMINATION; CYTOTOXICITY; REVIEW; SYNTHESIS;

ANIMALIA; FUSARIUM; FUSARIUM CULMORUM; FUSARIUM PROLIFERATUM; GIBBERELLA MONILIFORMIS; MEMNONIELLA; MYROTHECIUM; STACHYBOTRYS; TRICHODERMA;

EID: 56549106535     PISSN: None     EISSN: 14220067     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/ijms9112062     Document Type: Review

References (171)

1. Magan, N.; Aldred, D. Post-harvest control strategies: Minimizing mycotoxins in the food chain. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2007, 119, 131-139.
2. Gelderblom, W.C.; Marasas, W.F.; Vleggaar, R.; Thiel, P.G.; Cawood, M.E. Fumonisins: isolation, chemical characterization and biological effects. Mycopathologia. 1992, 117, 11-16.
3. Jackson, L.S.; Bullerman, L.B. Effect of processing on Fusarium mycotoxins. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 1999, 459, 243-261.
4. FDA. Fumonisin levels in human foods and animal feeds. Available at: http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/∼dms/fumongui.html. Accessed 9 November 2000.
5. Creppy, E.E. Update of survey, regulation and toxic effects of mycotoxins in Europe. Toxicol. Lett. 2002, 127, 19-28.
6. Omurtag, G.Z.; Yazicioglu, D.; Beyoglu, D.; Tozan, A.; Atak, G. A review on fumonisin and trichothecene mycotoxins in foods consumed in Turkey. ARI, ITU-Bulletin. 2006, 54, 39-45.
7. Maragos, C.; Bumsan, M.; Sugita-Konishi, Y. Production and characterization of a monoclonal antibody that cross-reacts with the mycotoxins nivalenol and 4-deoxynivalenol. Food Addit. Contam. 2006, 23, 816-825.
8. Severino, L.; Luongo, D.; Bergamo, P.; Lucisano, A.; Rossi, M. Mycotoxins nivalenol and deoxynivalenol differentially modulate cytokine mRNA expression in Jurkat T cells. Cytokine. 2006, 36, 75-82.
9. Goyarts, T.; Dänicke, S.; Valenta, H.; Ueberschär, K.H. Carry-over of Fusarium toxins (deoxynivalenol and zearalenone) from naturally contaminated wheat to pigs. Food Addit. Contam. 2007, 24, 369-380.
10. 2 and fusarin C. Lyon, France, 1993.
11. Bezuidenhout, S.C.; Gelderblom, W.C.A.; Gorst-Allman, C.P.; Horak, R.M.; Marasas, W.F.O.; Spiteller, G.; Vleggaar, R. Structure elucidation of the fumonisins, mycotoxins from Fusarium moniliforme. J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 1988, 743-745.
12. Bennett, J.W.; Klich, M. Mycotoxins. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2003, 16, 497-516.
13. 1. Prog. Lipid Res. 2005, 44, 345-356.
14. Wang, J.; Zhou, Y.; Liu, W.; Zhu, X.; Du, L.; Wang, Q. Fumonisin level in corn-based food and feed from Linxian Country, a high-risk area for esophageal cancer in China. Food Chem. 2008, 106, 241-246.
15. 1 in CV-1 cells. Food Chem. Toxicol. 1998, 36, 791-804.
16. 2 production by Aspergillus niger. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2007, 55, 9727-9732.
17. Doyle, E. Fusarium mycotoxins. FRI Briefings 1997, 1-4.
18. Desjardins, A.E.; Manandhar, H.K.; Plattner, R.D.; Manandhar, G.G.; Poling, S.M.; Maragos, C.M. Fusarium species from nepalese rice and production of mycotoxins and gibberellic acid by selected species. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2000, 66, 1020-1025.
19. Marasas, W.F.O. Discovery and occurrence of the fumonisins: A historical perspective. Environ. Health Perspect. 2001, 109, 239-243.
20. Haschek, W.M.; Gumprecht, L.A.; Smith, G.; Tumbleson, M.E.; Constable, P.D. Fumonisin toxicosis in swine: An overview of porcine pulmonary edema and current perspectives. Environ. Health Perspect. 2001, 109, 251-257.
21. Castelo, M.M.; Sumner, S.S.; Bullerman, L.B. Stability of fumonisins in thermally processed corn products. J. Food Prot. 1998, 161, 1030-1033.
22. 1 by Fusarium moniliforme. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1990, 56, 1729-1733.
23. Jackson, L.S.; Hlywka, J.J.; Senthil, K.R.; Bullerman, L.B. Effect of thermal processing on the stability of fumonisins. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 1996, 392, 345-353.
24. 2 production by Fusarium proliferatum and F. moniliforme on maize grain. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 1995, 21, 298-301.
25. Pacin, A.M.; Broggi, L.E.; Resnik, S.L.; González, H.H.L. Mycoflora and mycotoxins natural occurrence in corn from Entre Rios province, Argentina. Myco. Res. 2001, 17, 31-38.
26. Broggi, L.E.; Resnik, S.L.; Pacin, A.M.; González, H.H.; Cano, G.; Taglieri, D. Distribution of fumonisins in dry-milled corn fractions in Argentina. Food Addit. Contam. 2002, 19, 465-469.
27. 1: Comparison of flow-injection liposome immunoanalysis with high-performance liquid chromatography. Anal. Biochem. 2003, 312, 7-13.
28. Soriano, J.M.; Dragacci, S. Occurrence of fumonisins in foods. Food Res. Intern. 2004, 37, 985-1000.
29. 1: Oxidative status and DNA damage in rats. Toxicology 2007, 232, 163-169.
30. 1. Environ. Health Criteria 219. World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland. Available at: http://www.inchem.org/ documents/ehc/ehc/ ehc219.htm, 12 February 2000.
31. 1 isolated from Fusarium moniliforme. Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res. 1988, 55, 197-203.
32. 1 levels associated with an epizootic of equine leukoencephalomalacia. J. Vet. Diagn. Invest. 1990, 2, 213-216.
33. 1. Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res. 1990, 57, 269-275.
34. Bucci, T.J.; Howard, P.C. Effect of fumonisin mycotoxins in animals. J. Toxicol. Toxin. Rev. 1996, 15, 293-302.
35. Kriek, N.P.; Kellerman, T.S.; Marasas, W.F. A comparative study of the toxicity of Fusarium verticillioides (= F. moniliforme) to horses, primates, pigs, sheep and rats. Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res. 1981, 48, 129-131.
36. 1, a toxic metabolite of Fusarium moniliforme. J. Vet. Diagn. Invest. 1990, 2, 217-221.
37. Fincham, J.E.; Marasas, W.F.; Taljaard, J.J.; Kriek, N.P.; Badenhorst, C.J.; Gelderblom, W.C.; Seier, J.V.; Smuts, C.M.; Faber, M.; Weight, M.J.; Atherogenic effects in a non-human primate of Fusarium moniliforme cultures added to a carbohydrate diet. Atherosclerosis 1992, 94, 13-25.
38. 1. J. Nat. Toxins 1996, 4, 51-52.
39. Gelderblom, W.C.A.; Jaskiewicz, K.; Marasas, W.F.O.; Thiel, P.G.; Horak, R.M.; Vleggaar, R.; Kriek, N.P.J. Fumonisins-Novel mycotoxins with cancer-promoting activity produced by Fusarium moniliforme. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1988, 54, 1806-1811.
40. 1, in rats. Carcinogenesis 1991, 12, 1247-1251.
41. 1 includes rare variants of renal tubule tumor. Toxicol. Pathol. 2001, 29, 379-386.
42. Marasas, W.F.; Riley, R.T.; Hendricks, K.A.; Stevens, V.L.; Sadler, T.W.; Gelineauvan Waes, J.; Missmer, S.A.; Cabrera, J.; Torres, O.; Gelderblom, W.C.; Allegood, J.; Martínerz, C.; Maddox, J.; Miller, J.D.; Star, L.; Sullards, M.C.; Roman, A.V.; Voss, K.A.; Wang, E.; Merril, A.H. Fumonisins distrupt sphingolipid metabolism, folate transport, and neuronal tube development in embryo culture and in vivo: A potential risk factor for human neuronal tube defects among populations consuming fumonisin-contaminated maize. J. Nutr. 2004, 134, 711-716.
43. Edrington, T.S.; Kamps-Holtzapple, C.A.; Harvey, R.B.; Kulbena, L.F.; Elissalde, M.H.; Rottinghaus, G.E. Acute hepatic and renal toxicity in lambs dosed with fumonisin-containing culture material. J. Anim. Sci. 1995, 73, 508-515.
44. Bucci, T.J.; Howard, P.C.; Tolleson, W.H.; Laborde, J.B.; Hansen, D.K. Renal effects of fumonisin mycotoxins in animals. Toxicol. Pathol. 1998, 26, 160-164.
45. Voss, K.A.; Riley, R.T.; Norred, W.P.; Bacon, C.W.; Meredith, F.I.; Howard, P.C.; Plattner, R.D.; Collins, T.F.X.; Hansen, D.K.; Porter, J.K. An overview of rodent toxicities: liver and kidney effects of fumonisins and Fusarium moniliforme. Environ. Health Perspect. 2001, 109, 259-266.
46. 2 and moniliformin from Fusarium proliferatum. Mycopathologia 1993, 124, 47-54.
47. Dombrink-Kurtzman, M.A.; Bennett,G.A.; Richard, J.L. An optimized MTT bioassay for determination of cytotoxicity of fumonisins in turkey lymphocytes. J. AOAC Int. 1994, 77, 512-516.
48. 1 exposure on chicken macrophage functions in vitro. Poult. Sci. 1992, 71, 104-112.
49. 1 on rabbit kidney RK13 cell line. Arch. Toxicol. 2002, 76, 55-61.
50. Franceschi, S.; Bidoli, E.; Barón, A.E.; La Vecchia, C. Maize and risk of cancer of the oral cavity, pharynx, and esophagus in northeastern Italy. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1990, 82, 1407-1411.
51. Shephard, G.S.; Marasas, W.F.; Leggott, N.L.; Yazdanpanah, H.; Rahimian, H.; Safavi, N. Natural occurrence of fumonisins in corn from Iran. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2000, 48, 1860-1864.
52. Rheeder, J.P.; Marasas, W.F.O.; Thiel, P.G.; Sydenham, E.W.; Shephard, G.S.; van Schalkwyk, D.J. Fusarium moniliforme and fumonisins in corn in relation to human esophageal cancer in Transkei. Phytopathology 1992, 82, 353-357.
53. 1 and other mycotoxins in moldy corn collected from the People's Republic of China in regions with incidences of esophageal cancer. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1994, 60, 847-852.
54. Groves, F.D.; Zhang, L.; Chang, Y.S.; Ross, P.F.; Casper, H.; Norred, W.P.; You, W.C.; Fraumeni, J.F. Jr. Fusarium mycotoxins in corn and corn products in a high-risk area for gastric in Shandong Province, China. J. AOAC Int. 1999, 82, 657-662.
55. World Health Organization (WHO) International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans, Lyon 2002; volumes 82, pp. 301-366.
56. Duvick, J. Prospects for reducing fumonisin contamination of maize through genetic modification. Environ. Health Perspect. 2001, 109, 337-342.
57. 1 on viability and mitogenic response of avian immune cells. Poult. Sci. 2006, 85, 1020-1024.
58. 1. Mutagenesis 2000, 15, 469-471.
59. Turner, P.C.; Nikiema, P.; Wild, C.P. Fumonisin contamination of food: progress in development of biomarkers to better assess human health risks. Mutat. Res. 1999, 443, 81-93.
60. Humpf, H.U.; Voss, K.A. Effects of thermal food processing on the chemical structure and toxicity. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2004, 48, 255-269.
61. FDA. Background paper in support of fumonisin levels in corn and corn products intended for human consumption, Available at: http://www. micotoxinas.com.br/boletim36.pdf, accessed 9 November 2001.
62. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology. Mycotoxins: Risks in plant, animal, and human system; Task Force Report, No.139 Ames, Iowa, USA, 2003; pp. 48-58.
63. Pestka, J.J.; Smolinski, A.T. Deoxynivalenol: Toxicology and potential effects on humans. J. Environ. Sci. Health B. 2005, 8, 39-69.
64. Eriksen, G.S. Metabolism and Toxicity of Trichothecenes, Doctoral thesis, Uppsala, Sweden, 2003.
65. Sudakin, D.L. Trichothecenes in the environment: Relevance to human health. Toxicol. Lett. 2003, 143, 97-107.
66. Hsia, C.C.; Wu, J.L.; Lu, X.Q.; Li, Y.S. Natural occurrence and clastogenic effects of nivalenol, deoxynivalenol, 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol, 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol, and zearalenone in corn from a high-risk area of esophageal cancer. Cancer Detect. Prev. 1988, 13, 79-86.
67. Eriksen, G.S.; Pettersson, H. Toxicological evaluation of trichothecenes in animal feed. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2004, 114, 205-239.
68. Rocha, O.; Ansar, K.; Doohan, F.M. Effects of trichothecene mycotoxins on eukaryotic cells: A review. Food Addit. Contam. 2005, 22, 369-378.
69. Koch, P. State of the art of trichothecenes analysis. Toxicol. Lett. 2004, 153, 109-112.
70. Pestka, J.J. Deoxynivalenol:toxicity, mechanisms and animal health risks. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2007, 137, 283-298.
71. Schrödter, R. Influence of harvest and storage conditions on trichothecenes levels in various cereals. Toxicol. Lett. 2004, 153, 47-49.
72. Widestrand, J.; Pettersson, H. Effect of time, temperature and solvent on the stability of T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, deoxynivalenol and nivalenol calibrants. Food Addit. Contam. 2001, 18, 987-992.
73. Lauren, D.R.; Smith, W.A. Stability of the Fusarium mycotoxins nivalenol, deoxynivalenol and zearalenone in ground maize under typical cooking environments. Food Addit. Contam. 2001, 18, 1011-1016.
74. Larsen, J.C.; Hunt, J.; Perin, I.; Ruckenbauer, P. Workshop on trichothecenes with a focus on DON: Summary report. Toxicol. Lett. 2004, 1-22.
75. Osweiler, G.D. Diagnosis of mycotoxicoses. In Occurrence and clinical manifestations of trichothecene toxicoses and zearalenone toxicoses. Richard, J.L., Thurston, J.R., Eds.; National Animal Disease Center: Ames, Iowa, USA. 1986; pp. 31-42.
76. D'Mello, J.P.F.; Placinta, C.M.; Macdonald, A.M.C. Fusarium mycotoxins: A review of global implications for animal health, welfare and productivity. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 1999, 80, 183-205.
77. Thuvander, A.; Wikman, C.; Gadhasson, I. In vitro exposure of human lymphocytes to trichothecenes: individual variation in sensitivity and effects of combined exposure on lymphocyte function. Food Chem. Toxicol. 1999, 37, 639-648.
78. Mateo, J.J.; Mateo, R.; Jiménez, M. Accumulation of type A trichothecenes in maize, wheat and rice by Fusarium sporotrichioides isolates under diverse culture conditions. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2002, 72, 115-123.
79. Holt, P.S.; Buckley, S.; Norman, J.O.; Deloach, J.R. Cytotoxic effect of T-2 mycotoxin on cells in culture as determined by a rapid colorimetric bioassay. Toxicon. 1988, 26, 549-558.
80. Rabie, C.J.; Sydenham, E.W.; Thiel, P.G.; Lübben, A.; Marasas, W.F.O. T-2 toxin production by Fusarium acuminatum isolated from oats and barley. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1986, 52, 594-596.
81. Omurtag, G.Z.; Yazicioglu, D. Occurrence of T-2 toxin in processed cereals and pulses in Turkey determined by HPLC and TLC. Food Addit. Contam. 2001, 18, 844-849.
82. Trusal, L.R. Stability of T-2 mycotoxin in aqueous media. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1985, 50, 1311-1312.
83. Pace, J.G.; Matson, C.F. Stability of T-2, HT-2 and T-2 tetraol in biological fluids. J. Anal. Toxicol. 1988, 12, 48-50.
84. Scientific Committee on Food. Opinion on Fusarium Toxins. Part 5: T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin. Available at: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/ sc/scf/out88_en.pdf. 30 May 2001.
85. Gyongyossy-Issa, M.I.C.; Khanna, V.; Khachatourians, G.C. Characterisation of hemolysis induced by T-2 toxin. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1985, 838, 252-256.
86. Holt, P.S.; Buckley, S.; Norman, J.O., Deloach, J.R. Cytotoxic effect of T-2 mycotoxin on cells in culture as determined by a rapid colorimetric bioassay. Toxicon. 1988, 26, 549-558.
87. Moss, M.O. Mycotoxin review-2. Fusarium. Mycologist 2002, 16, 158-161.
88. Pacin, A.; Reale, C.; Mirengui, H.; Orellana, L.; Boente, G. Subclinic effect of the administration of T-2 toxin and nivalenol in mice. Mycotoxin Research 1994, 10, 34-46.
89. Wang, Z.G.; Feng, J.N.; Tong, Z. Human toxicosis caused by moldy rice contaminated with Fusarium and T-2 toxin. Biomed. Environ. Sci. 1993, 6, 65-70.
90. Samar, M.M.; Resnik, S.L.; González, H.H.L.; Pacin, A.M.; Castillo, M.D. Deoxynivalenol reduction during the frying process of turnover pie covers. Food Control. 2007, 18, 1295-1299.
91. Instanes, C.; Hetland, G. Deoxynivalenol (DON) is toxic to human colonic, lung and monocytic cell lines, but does not increase the IgE response in a mouse model for allergy. Toxicology 2004, 204, 13-21.
92. González, H.H.; Moltó, G.A.; Pacin, A.; Resnik, S.L.; Zelaya, M.J.; Masana, M.; Martínez, E.J. Trichothecenes and mycoflora in wheat harvested in nine locations in Buenos Aires province, Argentina. Mycopathologia 2008, 165, 105-114.
93. Wijnands, L.M.; van Leusden, F.M. An overview of adverse health effects caused by mycotoxins and biossays for their detection, RIVM report 257852 004, Bilthoven, 2000.
94. Rotter, B.A.; Prelusky, D.B.; Pestka, J.J. Invited Review: Toxicology of Deoxynivalenol (vomitoxin). J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part A. 1996, 48, 1-34.
95. Pestka, J.J.; Zhou, H.; Moon, Y.; Chung, Y.J. Cellular and molecular mechanisms for immune modulation by deoxynivalenol and other trichothecenes: unraveling a paradox. Toxicol. Lett. 2004, 153, 61-73.
96. Ito, Y.; Ohtsubo, K.; Ishii, K.; Ueno, Y. Effects of nivalenol on pregnancy and fetal development of mice. Mycotoxin Research 1986, 2, 71-77.
97. Larsen, J.C.; Hunt, J.; Perin, I.; Ruckenbauer, P. Workshop on trichothecenes with a focus on DON: Summary report. Toxicol. Lett. 2004, 153, 1-22.
98. Tep, J.; Videmann, B.; Mazallon, M.; Balleydier, S.; Cavret, S.; Lecoeur, S. Transepithelial transport of fusariotoxin nivalenol: Mediation of secretion by ABC transporters. Toxicol. Lett. 2007, 170, 248-258.
99. Scientific Committee on Food, (SCF). Opinion of the Scientific Committee on food on Fusarium Toxins. Part 4: Nivalenol. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scf/out74_en.pdf. Accessed 19 October 2000.
100. Maragos, C.; Bumsan, M.; Sugita-Konish, Y. Production and characterization of a monoclonal antibody that cross-react with the mycotoxins nivalenol and 4-deoxynivalenol. Food Addit. Contam. 2006, 23, 816-825.
101. Ueno, Y.; Umemori, K.; Nimi, E.; Tanuma, S.; Nagata, S.; Sugamata, M.; Ihara, T.; Sekijima, M.; Kawai, K.; Ueno, I. Induction of apoptosis by T-2 toxin and other natural toxins in HL-60 human promyelotic leukemia cells. Nat. Toxins 1995, 3, 129-137.
102. Pronk, M.E.J.; Schothorst, R.C.; van Egmond, H.P. Toxicology and occurrence of nivalenol, fusarenon X, diacetoxyscirpenol, neosolaniol and 3- and 15-acetylnivalenol: A review of six trichothecenes. RIVM Report 388802024, Bilthoven, 2002; p. 75.
103. Choi, C-Y.; Nakajima-Adachi, H.; Kaminogawa, S.; Sugita-Konishi, Y. Nivalenol inhibits total an antigen-specific IgE prouction in mice. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2000, 165, 94-98.
104. Ryu, J.C.; Ohtsubo, K.; Izumiyama, N.; Nakamura, K.; Tanaka, T.; Yamamura, H.; Ueno, Y. The acute and chronic toxicities of nivalenol in mice. Fundam Appl. Toxicol. 1988, 11, 38-47.
105. Bauer, J.; Bollwahn, W.; Gareis, M.; Gedek, B.; Heinritzi, K. Kinetic profiles of Diacetoxyscirpenol and two of its metabolites in blood serum of pigs. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1985, 49, 842-845.
106. Omurtag, G.Z.; Tozan, A.; Sirkecioglu, O.; Kumbaraci, V.; Rollas, S. Occurrence of diacetoxyscirpenol (anguidine) in processed cereals and pulses in Turkey by HPLC. Food Control. 2007, 18, 970-974.
107. Swanson, S.P.; Terwel, L.; Corley, R.A.; Buck, W.B. Gas chromatographic method fort he determination of diacetoxyscirpenol in swine plasma and urine. J. Chromatogr. 1982, 248, 456-460.
108. Mateo, J.J.; Mateo, R.; Jimanez, M.; Accumulation of type A trichothecenes in maize, wheat and rice by Fusarium sporotrichioides isolates under diverse culture conditions. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2002, 72, 115-123.
109. Patey, A.L.; Gilbert, J. Fate of Fusarium mycotoxins in cereals during food processing and methods for their detoxification. In Fusarium mycotoxins, Taxonomy and pathogenicity; Chelkowski, J., Ed.; Elsevier: New York, 1989; Volume 2, pp. 399-420.
110. Wang, J-S.; Busby, W.F.; Wogan, G.N. Percutaneous absorption and tissue distribution of [3H]diacetoxyscirpenol (Anguidine) in rats and mice. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1996, 140, 264-273.
111. Mirocha, C.J.; Pathre, S.V.; Schauerhamer, B.; Christensen, C.M. Natural occurrence of Fusarium toxins in feedstuff. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1976, 32, 553-556.
112. Swanson, S.P.; Nicoletti, J.; Rood, H.D.; Buck, W.B.; Cote, L.M. Metabolism of three trichothecene mycotoxins, T-2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol and deoxynivalenol, by bovine rumen microorganisms. J. Chromatogr. 1987, 414, 335-342.
113. Wang, J-S., Busby, W.F., Wogan, G.N. Comparative tissue distribution and excretion of orally administered [3H] diacetoxyscirpenol (anguidine) in rats and mice. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1990, 103, 430-440.
114. Mayura, K.; Smith, E.E.; Clement, B.A.; Harvey, R.B.; Kubena, L.F.; Phillips, T.D. Developmental toxicity of diacetoxyscirpenol in the mouse. Toxicology 1987, 45, 245-255.
115. Craddock, V.M.; Hill, R.J.; Henderson, A.R. Stimulation of DNA replication in rat esophagus and stomach by the trichothecene mycotoxin diacetoxyscirpenol. Cancer Lett. 1987, 38, 199-208.
116. Masuda, E.; Takemoto, T.; Tatsuno, T.; Obara, T. Induction of suppressor macrophages in mice by Fusarenon-X. Immunology 1982, 47, 701-708.
117. Weidenbörner, M. Encyclopedia of Food mycotoxins; Springer: Berlin, German, 2000; pp. 1-80.
118. Carter, C.J.; Cannon, M. Inhibition of Eukaryotic ribosomal function by the sesquiterpenoid antibiotic Fusarenon-X, Eur. J. Biochem. 1978, 84, 103-111.
119. Bony, S.; Olivier-Loiseau, L.; Carcelen, M.; Devaux, A. Genotoxic potential associated with low levels of the Fusarium mycotoxins nivalenol and fusarenon-X in a human intestinal cell line. Toxicol. In Vitro. 2007, 21, 457-465.
120. Miura, K.; Aminova, L.; Murayama, Y. Fusarenon-X induced apoptosis in HL-60 cells depends on caspase activation and cytochrome c release. Toxicology 2002, 172, 103-112.
121. Tritscher, A.M.; Page, S.W. The risk assessment paradigm and its application for trichothecenes. Toxicol. Lett. 2004, 153, 155-163.
122. Bondy, G.S.; McCormick S.P.; Beremand M.N.; Pestka, J.J. Murine lymphocyte proliferation impaired by substituted neosolaniols and calonectrins--Fusarium metabolites associated with trichothecene biosynthesis. Toxicon. 1991, 29, 1107-1113.
123. Krska, R.; Pettersson, H.; Josephs, R.D.; Lemmens, M.; MacDonald, S.; Welzig, E. Zearalenone in maize: stability testing and matrix characterization of a certified reference material. Food Addit. Contam. Part A. 2003, 20, 1141-1152.
124. Placinta, C.M.; D'Mello, J.P.F.; Macdonald, A.M.C. A review of worldwide contamination of cereal grains and animal feed with Fusarium mycotoxins. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 1999, 78, 21-37.
125. Wood, G.E. Mycotoxins in foods and feeds in the United States. J. Anim. Sci. 1992, 70, 3941-3949.
126. Scientific Committee on Food (SCF). Opinion of the Scientific Committee on food on Fusarium Toxins. Part 2: Zearalenone (ZEA). Available at: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/scf/out65_en.pdf. Accessed 22 June 2000.
127. Diekman, M.A.; Green, M.L. Mycotoxins and reproduction in domestic livestock. J. Anim. Sci. 1992, 70, 1615-1627.
128. González, H.H.; Martínez, E.J.; Pacin, A.M.; Resnik, S.L.; Sydenham, E.W. Natural cooccurrence of fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone and aflatoxins in field trial corn in Argentina. Food Addit. Contam. 1999, 16, 565-569.
129. Ruhr, L.P.; Osweiler, G.D.; Foley, C.W. Effect of the estrogenic mycotoxin zearalenone on reproductive potential in the boar. Am. J. Vet. Res. 1983, 44, 483-485.
130. Goyarts, T. Effects of the Fusarium toxin deoxynivalenol (DON) on protein synthesis, immunological parameters and DON-kinetics in the pig. Doctoral Thesis, Hannover, 2006.
131. Tanaka, K.; Sago, Y.; Zheng, Y.; Nakagawa, H.; Kushiro, M. Mycotoxins in rice. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2007, 119, 59-66.
132. Schothorst, R.; van Egmond, H.P. Report from SCOOP task 3.2.10 "collection of occurrence data of Fusarium toxins in food and assessment of dietary intake by the population of EU member states" Subtask: Trichothecenes. Toxicol. Lett. 2004, 153, 133-143.
133. Binder, E.M.; Tan, L.M.; Chin, L.J.; Handl, J.; Richard, J. Worldwide occurrence of mycotoxins in commodities, feeds and feed ingredients. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2007, 137, 265-282.
134. van Egmond, H.P.; Jonker, M.A. Regulations for mycotoxins in food: Focus on the European Union and Turkey. ARI, ITU-Bulletin. 2006, 54, 1-17.
135. International Programme on Chemical Safety (INCHEM). Environmental Health Criteria 105, Selected Mycotoxins: Ochratoxins, Trichothecenes, Ergot. Available at: http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc105. htm#SectionNumber:4.3. 12 March 1990.
136. Berg, T. How to establish international limits for mycotoxin in food and feed? Food Control. 2003, 14, 219-224.
137. th Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). WHO Technical Report 906, Geneva, 2002; pp. 16-26.
138. Arici, M.; Daglioglu, O.; Gumus, T.; Daglioglu, F. Occurrence of fumonisin in processed and low processed corn-based products in Turkey. Acta Aliment. 2004, 33, 325-328.
139. Zinedine, A.; Brera, C.; Elakhdari, S.; Catano, C.; Debegnach, F.; Angelini, S.; De Santis, B.; Faid, M.; Benlemlih, M.; Minardi, V.; Miraglia, M. Natural occurrence of mycotoxins in cereals and species commercialized in Morocco. Food Control. 2006, 17, 868-874.
140. 1 during processing. Nahrung 2003, 47, 222-225.
141. 2 from conventional and organic corn. Food Control. 2007, 18, 1058-1062.
142. Cvetnić, Z.; Pepeljnjak, S.; Šegvić, M. Toxigenic potential of Fusarium species isolated from non-harvested maize. Arh Hig Rada Toksikol. 2005, 56, 275-280.
143. Broggi, L.E.; Pacin, A.M.; Gasparovic, A.; Sacchi, C.; Rothermel, A.; Gallay, A.; Resnik, S. Natural occurrence of aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins and zearalenone in maize from Entre Rios Province, Argentina. Myco. Res. 2007, 23, 59-64.
144. 1, ochratoxin A and zearalenone in cereals and peanuts from Côte d'Ivoire. Food Addit. Contam. 2006, 23, 1000-1007.
145. 2, zearalenone and ochratoxin A contamination of maize in Croatia. Food Addit. Contam. 2005, 22, 677-680.
146. de Castro, M.F.P.M.; Shephard, G.S.; Sewram, V.; Vicente, E.; Mendonça, T.A.; Jordan, A.C. Fumonisins in Brazilian corn-based foods for infant consumption. Food Addit. Contam. 2004, 21, 693-699.
147. Lombaert, G.A.; Pellaers, P.; Roscoe, V.; Mankotia, M.; Neil, R.; Scott, P.M. Mycotoxins in infant cereal foods from the Canadian reteal market. Food Addit. Contam. 2003, 20, 494-504.
148. Pacin, A.M.; Gonzalez, H.H.L.; Resnik, S.L.; Boca, R.T.; Burak, R.; Broccoli, A.M.; de Souza, J.C. Natural occurrence of mycotoxins and mycoflora of Argentinean popcorn. Myco. Res. 2002, 18-96.
149. Mashinini, K.; Dutton, M.F. The incidence of fungi and mycotoxins in South Africa wheat and wheat-based products. J. Environ. Sci. Health B 2006, 41, 285-296.
150. Park, J.W.; Choi, S-Y.; Hwang, H-J.; Kim, Y.B. Fungal mycoflora and mycotoxins in Korean polished rice destined for humans. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2005, 103, 305-314.
151. 2 in Italian marketed foodstuffs. Food Addit. Contam. 2003, 20, 566-571.
152. 1:development of a method for simultaneous extraction of ochratoxin A and citrinin. Food Chem. 2005, 92, 391-400.
153. Solovey, M.M.; Somoza, C.; Canos, G.; Pacin, A.; Resnik, S. A survey of fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone and aflatoxins contamination in corn-based food products in Argentina. Food Addit. Contam. 1999, 16, 325-329.
154. Milanez, T.V.; Valente-Soares, L.M.; Baptista, G.G. Occurrence of trichothecene mycotoxins in Brazilian corn-based food products. Food Control. 2005, 17, 293-298.
155. Krysińska-Traczyk, E.; Perkowski, J.; Dutkiewicz, J. Levels of fungi and mycotoxins in the samples of grain and grain dust collected from five various cereal crops in Eastern Poland. Ann. Agric. Environ. Med. 2007, 14, 159-167.
156. Adejumo, T.O.; Hettwer, U.; Karlovsky, P. Occurrence of Fusarium species and trichothecenes in Nigerian maize. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2007, 116, 350-357.
157. Cavaliere, C.; D'Ascenzo, G.; Foglia, P.; Pastorini, E.; Samperi, R.; Laganà, A. Determination of type b trichothecenes and macrocyclic lactone mycotoxins in field contaminated maize. Food Chem. 2005, 92, 559-568.
158. Castillo, M-Á.; Montes, R.; Navarro, A.; Segarra, R.; Cuesta, G. Hernández, E. Occurrence of deoxynivalenol and nivalenol in Spanish corn-based food products. J. Food Compost. Anal. 2008, 21, 423-427.
159. Al-Julafi, M.Z.; Al-Falih, A.M. Detection of trichothecenes in animal feeds and foodstuffs during the years 1997 to 2000 in Saudi Arabia. J. Food Prot. 2001, 64, 1603-1606.
160. Schollenberger, M.; Jara, H.T.; Suchy, S.; Drochner, W.; Müler, H.M. Fusarium toxins in wheat flour collected in an area in southwest Germany. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2002, 72, 85-89.
161. Rasmussen, P.H.; Ghorbani, F.; Berg, T. Deoxynivalenol and other Fusarium toxins in wheat and rye flours on the Danish market. Food Addit. Contam. 2003, 20, 396-404.
162. Mankevičienė, A.; Butkute, B.; Dabkevičius, Z.; Suproniene, S. Fusarium mycotoxins in Lithuanian cereals from the 2004-2005 harvests. Ann. Agric. Environ. Med. 2007, 14, 103-107.
163. Langseth, W.; Rundberget, T. The occurrence of HT-2 toxin and other trichothecenes in Norwegian cereals. Mycopathologia 1999, 147, 157-165.
164. Schneweis, I.; Meyer, K.; Engelhardt, G.; Bauer, J. Occurrence of zearalenone-4-β-D-glucopyranoside in wheat. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2002, 50, 1736-1738.
165. Pan, D.; Bonsignore, F.; Rivas, F.;Perera, G.;Bettucci, L. Deoxynivalenol in barley samples from Uruguay. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2007, 114, 149-152.
166. Ayalew, A.; Fehrmann, H.; Lepschy, J.; Beck, R.; Abate, D. Natural occurrence of mycotoxins in staple cereals from Ethiopia. Mycopathologia 2006, 162, 57-63.
167. Perkowski, J.; Basiński, T. Natural contamination of oat with group A trichothecene mycotoxins in Poland. Food Addit. Contam. 2002, 19, 478-482.
168. Omurtag, G.Z.; Yazicioglu, D. Determination of T-2 toxin in grain and grain products by HPLC and TLC. J. Environ. Sci. Health B. 2000, 35, 797-807.
169. Li, F-Q.; Luo, X-Y.; Yoshizawa, T. Mycotoxins (trichothecenes, zearalenone and fumonisins) in cereals associated with human red-mold intoxications stored since 1989 and 1991 in China. Nat. Toxins. 1999, 7, 93-97.
170. Eskola, M.; Parikka, P.; Rizzo, A. Trichothecenes, ochratoxin A and zearalenone contamination and Fusarium infection in Finnish cereal samples in 1998. Food Addit. Contam. 2001, 18, 707-718.
171. Schollenberger, M.; Suchy, S.; Jara, H.T.; Drochner, W.; Müller, H.M. A survey of Fusarium toxins in cereal-based foods marketed in an area of southwest Germany. Mycopathologia 1999, 147, 49-57.