Chinese guilds from the seventeenth to the twentieth centuries: An overview

International Review of Social History

Volumn 53, Issue SUPPL. 16, 2008, Pages 213-247

  Moll Murata, Christine ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 56549106452     PISSN: 00208590     EISSN: 1469512X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0020859008003672     Document Type: Article

References (163)

1. "Zhongguo gongshang ye hanghui jianbiao" [Short Table of the Chinese Craft and Commercial Guilds, 1655-1911], in Peng Zeyi (ed.), Zhongguo gongshang hanghui shiliao ji [Collection of Historical Materials on Chinese Craft and Commercial Guilds], 2 vols (Beijing, 1995), II, pp. 997-1048.
2. K., "Chinese Guilds and their Rules", The China Review, 12 (August 1883), pp. 5-9;
3. Daniel J. MacGowan, "Chinese Guilds or Chambers of Commerce and Trade Unions", Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 21 (1886), pp. 133-192;
4. A.H. Bach, "Regeln der Kantoner Kaufmannsgilde in Pakhoi", Mitteilungen des Seminars für Orientalische Sprachen an der Königlichen Wilhelms-Universität zu Berlin (Berlin, 1905), pp. 263-266;
5. Hosea Ballou Morse, The Gilds of China: With an Account of the Gild Merchant or Co-Hong of Canton (London, 1909).
6. Since the 1880s, serialized reports on the local economy, including guilds, in the treaty ports were published by the Imperial Maritime Customs. See, for example, Imperial Maritime Customs (ed.), I. Statistical Series, 6. Decennial Reports on the Trade, Navigation, Industries etc. of the Ports open to Foreign Commerce in China and Corea [...], 1882-1891 (Shanghai, 1896), p. ix, which demands that the British representatives of the respective treaty ports declare "what provinces have hui-kuan at your port and in what provinces your port has hui-kuan, with the rules of these clubs or guilds, and the privileges and duties of membership etc".
7. Sidney D. Gamble and John Stewart Burgess, Peking: A Social Survey (New York, 1921);
8. John Stewart Burgess, The Guilds of Peking (New York, 1928; repr. Taipei, 1966);
9. Pierre B. Maybon, Essai sur les Associations en Chine (Paris, 1925);
10. G.G. Avenarius, The Chinese Guilds: Brief Sketch of Their History with Colour Printed Signs Representing Different Lines of Trade (Harbin, 1928);
11. Wada Sei, "Kaikan kōsho no kigen ni tsuite" [On the Origins of Association Houses and Public Halls], Shigaku zasshi [History Journal], 33 (1922), pp. 808-811;
12. Shanhai shuppan kyōkai chösabu (ed.), Shina no dogyo kumi'ai to sho kanshū [The Trade Associations of China and Commercial Customary Law] (Shanghai, 1925).
13. Negishi Tadashi, Shina no girudo no kenkyū [A Study of Chinese Guilds] (Tokyo, 1938);
14. Niida Noboru, "Pekin no kōshō girudo to sono enkaku (shohen)" [The Peking Craft and Commercial Guilds and their Development, I), Tōyō bunka kenkyūjo kiyō [Memoirs of the Research Institute for Oriental Culture], 1 (1943), pp. 239-358.
15. Quan Hansheng, Zhongguo hanghui zhidu shi [The History of the Chinese Guild System] (Shanghai, 1934), and since the 1950s, especially in Peng Zeyi's writings, most importantly the collection of guild materials, Zhongguo gongshang hanghui shiliao ji, but also in the Chinese literature on the "sprouts of capitalism" of the 1950s to the 1980s.
16. Lü Zuoxie, "Ming Qing shiqide huiguan bing fei gongshangye de hanghui" [The Ming and Qing Association Houses are Definitely Not Merchant and Artisan "Guilds"], Zhongguo shi yanjiu [Research on Chinese History], 3 (1982), pp. 66-79, 66.
17. Qiu Pengsheng, Shiba, shijiu shiji Suzhou cbeng de xinxing gongshangye tuanti [The New Associations of Merchants and Artisans in the City of Suzhou, 1700-1900] (Taipei, 1990), pp. 1-3;
18. see also Peng Nansheng, Hanghui zhidu de jindai mingyun [The Fate of the Guilds in the Modern Era] (Bejing, 2003).
19. For a synopsis of mainstream views on European guilds and the position held by Marx, see Josef Ehmer, "Artisans, Guilds and Craft Regulations in European History and Historiography", in Christine Moll-Murata, Song Jianze, and Hans Ulrich Vogel (eds), Chinese Handicraft Regulations of the Qing Dynasty: Theory and Application (Munich, 2005), pp. 61-76, 65;
20. Hugo Soly's introduction to his contribution in the present volume; and Luca Mocarelli's article also in this volume. The classic study which most pointedly criticizes late nineteenth-century guilds for impeding the development of capitalism in China is Peng Zeyi's "Shijiu shiji houqi Zhongguo chengshi shougongye shangye hanghui de chongjian he zuoyong" [The Re-establishment and Functions of Chinese Urban Handicraft and Commercial Guilds in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century], Lishi yanjiu [Historical Studies], 1 (1965), pp. 71-102.
21. Peng, Hanghui zhidu; Wang Xiang, "Jindai Zhongguo shougongye hanghui de yanbian" [The Evolution of the Modern Chinese Handicraft Guilds], Zhongguo jingjishi yanjiu [Studies in Chinese Economic History], 4 (1998), pp. 56-70.
22. For a sophisticated analysis of the various functions of huiguan, see L. Eve Armentrout Ma, "Fellow-Regional Associations in the Ch'ing Dynasty: Organizations in Flux for Mobile People. A Preliminary Survey", Modern Asian Studies, 18 (1984), pp. 307-330.
23. Richard Belsky, Localities at the Center: Native Place, Space, and Power in Late Imperial Beijing (Cambridge, MA, 2006), p. 20. In this in-depth study of the Peking buiguan, which the author renders as "native-place lodge", he describes their main characteristics as being "established and operated by and for native-place compatriots" and holding "corporately owned property".
24. The Peking guild historians Li Hua et al. (eds), Ming Qing yilai Beijing gongshang huiguan beike xuanji [Selected Stele Texts of Peking Commercial and Craft Guild Houses from the Ming and Qing Dynasties] (Beijing, 1980), p. 20, estimate that 86 per cent of the Peking huiguan houses were established as hostels and meeting places for scholar-officials.
25. See also Belsky, Localities at the Center, pp. 59-60.
26. Ibid., pp. 91-92.
27. Ibid., p. 37, figure 2.1. However, based on written evidence and field research, a scholar of huiguan in Sichuan province has come to a figure of 1,400 buiguan for Sichuan alone (Lan Yong, "Qingdai Sichuan tuzhu he yimin fenbu de dili tezheng yanjiu" [Study on the Original Population of Sichuan in the Qing Dynasty and the Geographical Characteristics of Migrational Distribution], Zhongguo lishi dili luncong [Collected Essays on Chinese Historical Geography], 1 (1995),
28. and personal conversations with the author, October 2007), while in Belsky's account the figure for Sichuan is 586.
29. William T. Rowe, Hankow: Commerce and Society in a Chinese City, 1796-1889 (Stanford, CA, 1984),
30. and idem, Hankow: Conflict and Community in a Chinese City, 1796-1895 (Stanford, CA, 1989).
31. Bryna Goodman, Native Place, City, and Nation: Regional Networks and Identities in Shanghai, 1853-1937 (Berkeley, CA, 1995).
32. Max Weber, The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism (Glencoe, IL, 1951), pp. 13-20,
33. quoted in Belsky, Localities at the Center, p. 7.
34. According to Max Weber, whose informants on Chinese guilds were MacGowan and Morse, the Chinese in cities and countryside practiced self-government, and the individual was extremely dependent on professional associations. See Max Weber, Die Wirtschaftsethik der Weltreligionen. Konfuzianismus und Taoismus, Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer and Petra Kolonko (eds) (Tübingen, 1991), p. 40.
35. Ma Min and Zhu Ying, Chuantong yu jindai de erzhong bianzou - Wan Qing Suzhou shanghui ge an yanjiu [Dual Variations of Tradition and Modernity: A Case Study of the Late Qing Suzhou Trade Associations] (Chengdu, 1993);
36. Chen Zhongping, "The Origins of Chinese Chambers of Commerce in the Lower Yangzi Region", Modern China, 27 (2001), pp. 155-201;
37. Peng, Hanghui zhidu; Wang, "Jindai Zhongguo shougongye hanghui de yanbian", pp. 56-70.
38. Rowe, Hankow: Commerce and Society, p. 257.
39. Qiu, Shiba, shijiu, p. 190.
40. Peter Golas, "Early Ch'ing Guilds", in G. William Skinner (ed.), The City in Late Imperial China (Stanford, CA, 1977), pp. 555-580, especially pp. 555-557.
41. Katö Shigeshi, "On the Hang or Associations of Merchants in China, with Especial Reference to the Institution in the T'ang and Sung Periods", Memoirs of the Research Department of the Tōyō bunko, 8 (1936), pp. 45-83.
42. See too Shiba Yoshinobu, Commerce and Society in Sung China, Mark Elvin (trans.) (Ann Arbor, MI, 1970), p. 2, who characterized the change from the Tang to the Song guilds as a transformation "into something more nearly approaching an autonomous trade association".
43. Katō, "On the Hang", pp. 57-58.
44. Xihu laoren fansheng lu [Record of the Splendours [of the Capital] by the Old Man on the West Lake], c.1250. "Dongjing rneng Hua lu etc." [A Dream of Central Florescence (i.e. China) in the Eastern Capital] (Beijing, 1982), in Zhongguo pengren guji congkan [Collection of Classical Chinese Works on Culinary Art], p. 18.
45. These were also noted - as the result of hearsay or personal inspection - by Marco Polo, who may have visited Lin'an in the 1280s or early 1290s, just after the dynastic transition from the Southern Song to the Mongol Yuan. Marco Polo, Il Milione. Introduzione, edizione del testo toscano ("Ottimo")[...], Ruggero M. Ruggieri (ed.) (Florence, 1986), p. 235, refers to "dodici arti, cioè d'ogni mestiere una; e ciascuna arte hae dodicimilia istazioni, cioè dodicimilia case; e in ciascuna bottega hae almeno dieci uomeni, e in tale quindici [...] e in tale quaranta, non tutti maestri, ma discepoli." I am grateful to Luca Mocarelli, who discussed with me the probability of there being twelve "guilds" (arti), one for each trade, and 12,000 houses/stations (istazioni/case/botteghe) per "guild", with between 10 and 40 men working there, adding up to an artisan workforce of between 120,000 and 480,000. Lin'an registered c.250,000 households and an estimated population of one million in the Southern Song, two decades before Marco Polo arrived in China. The total figure for the number of artisans and/or merchants seems too high, as is frequently the case in Marco Polo's record, but the figure for the business quarters comes close to that recorded in Lin'an's city gazetteer from the 1270s. See Christine Moll-Murata, Die chinesische Regionalbeschreibung (Wiesbaden, 2001), p. 80.
46. Guo Rongdong, "The Silk-Weaving Craftsmen in Suzhou during the Ming and Qing Dynasties", in Brian Ranson (ed.), A Preliminary Study of Craft Guilds in China, III: Application and Transformation of Chinese Guilds: A Case Study of Selected Guilds in Beijing, Jingdezhen, Shanghai and Suzhou (Hong Kong, 1998), pp. 7-18, 10.
47. After the "Return of the Guilds" conference in 2006, Larry Epstein kindly provided me with these 1997-1998 proceedings of a series of workshops held by the study group on Chinese guilds at the Baptist University of Hong Kong.
48. Especially Katō, "On the Hang", pp. 45-83, 72.
49. Golas, "Early Ch'ing Guilds", p. 555.
50. Christine Moll-Murata, "Working for the State: The Chinese Labour Market for Manufacture and Construction, 1000-1900", p. 3, available at http://www.iisg.nl/hpw/papers/mollmurata05.pdf [last accessed 21 July 2008].
51. Harriet Zurndorfer, for instance, argues that the silk lobby based in Xi'an prevented the spread of cotton into North China before the second millennium. See Harriet Zurndorfer, "The Resistant Fibre: Cotton Consumption and Production in Ming and Qing China", in Giorgio Riello and Prasannan Parthasarathi (eds), The Spinning World: A Global History of Cotton Textiles, 1200-1850 (Oxford, forthcoming).
52. For a discussion of what made European guilds "powerful", see Hugo Soly's article in this volume, pp. 45-71.
53. Yang Junyou, "Guild, Guild-Halls and Collectively Established Associations: An Exploration of Forms of Voluntary Association in Beijing during the Ming and Qing Dynasties", in Ranson, A Preliminary Study of Craft Guilds in China, pp. 20-36, 20.
54. I am grateful to Harriet Zurndorfer for drawing my attention to Michel Marmé, Suzhou: Where the Gods of all the Provinces Converge (Stanford, CA, 2005), p. 137, who cites a reference to the 1466 foundation of a guild of cotton-cloth merchants from the Jiangsu districts of Jiading, Kunshan, and Suzhou at Linqing, an important entrepôt city on the Grand Canal in Shandong.
55. On obligatory citizenship and ways to attain it in the Low Countries, see Tine De Moor's contribution to the present volume, pp. 179-212.
56. Peng Nansheng observed that "trades without associations and associations without regulations" were a common phenomenon; Peng, Hanghui zhidu, p. 22.
57. For instance, Dai Yifeng gives the following analysis of the main activities of the Fujian merchant association (Bamin huiguan, later renamed Fujian huiguan), established in 1868 in Nagasaki: "(a) organizing memorial ceremonies for ancestors; (b) subsidizing the overseas Chinese schools; (c) giving financial aid to poor villagers from south Fujian; (d) organizing social and diplomatic activities; (e) collecting donations for China; and (f) administering the temple and public graveyard"; Dai Yifeng, "A Case of the Overseas Chinese Business Network: The Tai Yi Firm in Nagasaki and its Documents", IIAS Newsletter Online, 17 (December 1998), available at http://www.iias.nl/iiasn/17/institutes/17EAXC10.html past accessed 21 July 2008].
58. Anthony Reid, "Economic and Social Change, c. 1400-1800", in Nicholas Tarling (ed.), The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, 4 vols (Cambridge, 1999), I, pt. 2, p. 129.
59. Barbara Cohen, "The History of Hanoi's Old Quarter", Destination: Vietnam Magazine (September/October 1994), available at http://www.queencafe.com.vn/History/Hanoiold-quarter.htm [last accessed 21 July 2008]. Cohen points out that each "guild" had its own patron saint, to whom local temples were devoted.
60. Michael Waibel, "The Ancient Quarter of Hanoi: A Reflection of Urban Transition Processes", Asien, 92 (2004), pp. 30-48, 31, available at http://www.asienkunde.de/articles/Waibe192.pdf [last accessed 21 July 2008].
61. Vincent Goossaert, "Matériaux et recherches nouvelles sur les corporations chinoises urbaines traditionelles (des Ming à 1949)", Revue bibliographique de Sinologie, 17 (1999), p. 210.
62. See the epigraphic materials contained in Imahori Seiji's study Chūgoku hōken shakai no kikō: Kisui (Fufuhoto) ni okeru shakai shūdan no jittai chōsa (The Structure of Feudal Chinese Society: A Survey of the Actual Situation of Social Groups in Guisui/Hohhot] (Tokyo, 1955).
63. Ming Qing Foshan beike wenxian jingji ziliao [Economic Materials in Ming and Qing Dynasty Foshan Epigraphy and Printed Documents] (Guangzhou, 1987).
64. Rowe, "Ming-Qing Guilds", Ming Qing yanjiu, 1 (1992), pp. 47-60, 60.
65. A representative of the Peking barbers' guild informed Niida Noboru that big and reputable shops employed few apprentices and many journeymen, and only small places had many apprentices; Niida Noboru et al. (eds), Pekin kōshō girudo shiryōshū [Collected Materials on Peking Craft and Commercial Guilds], 6 vols (Tokyo, 1975-1983), II, p. 298.
66. See Rowe, "Ming-Qing Guilds", p. 48, for a discussion of the controversial positions of Chen and Myers, Negishi Tadashi, Quan Hansheng, and Peng Zeyi.
67. Ibid., p. 49.
68. Idem, Hankow: Commerce and Society, pp. 265-266.
69. Ibid., p. 290.
70. Burgess, The Guilds of Peking, p. 214;
71. Timothy Bradstock, "Craft Guilds in Ch'ing Dynasty China" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1984), pp. 248-249.
72. Morse, Guilds of China, p. 12, cites as examples the Tea Guild at Shanghai, with "an annually elected committee of twelve, each committee man acting in rotation for one month as chairman, or manager" the bankers' guild at Ningbo, with an elected treasurer and a committee of twelve; the carpenters' guild at Wenzhou, with five elected headmen; the millers' guild of Wenzhou, composed of sixteen mill proprietors who elected four representatives annually. Niida, Pekin kōshō girudo shiryōshū, III, p. 529, heard from a representative of the hatmakers' guild that leadership positions were now rotational, but had been hereditary before 1928.
73. Peng, Hanghui zhidu, p. 32.
74. Ibid., pp. 32-33.
75. Ibid., p. 40.
76. This process has been described by Rowe, Hankow: Commerce and Society, p. 264, as the formation of "multiplex guilds".
77. Burgess, The Guilds of Peking, pp. 211-212.
78. Peng, "Shijiu shiji houqi", pp. 71-102, especially pp. 93ff.
79. Ehmer, "Artisans, Guilds and Craft Regulations", pp. 65ff.
80. Only two in Peng Zeyi's collection of guild charters from the eighteenth to the twentieth centuries expressly forbade women to "participate in religious veneration in the guild house" or "enter the guild house". These cases may well show that women had entered the guild houses and offered sacrifices, or had tried to do so. Many more guild charters kept silent about women. See Peng, Zhongguo gongshang hanghui shiliao ji, II, p. 630, for the Jiangnan huiguan in Chongqing, and p. 635, for the Guangdong huiguan in Fuzhou.
81. Bradstock, "Craft Guilds", pp. 63-66.
82. Ibid.
83. Bradstock, "Craft Guilds", pp. 58ff.
84. Peng, "Shijiu shiji houqi", p. 91.
85. Peng, Hanghui zhidu, pp. 58-59.
86. Ibid., p. 62.
87. Morse, Guilds of China, pp. 20-21.
88. Ibid., p. 27. He qualifies as "rare" the case of the Wenzhou carpenters' guild that was recognized by the city officials in return for corvée duties (p. 12).
89. Rowe, Hankow: Commerce and Society, p. 257, quoting from the legal code with commentary Da Qing lüli huiji bianlan 15.2-3.
90. The inscriptions in Niida, Pekin kōshō girudo shiryoshū, IV, p. 682 (1899) and p. 723 (1792), include the names of two government bureaus in lists of donors for the embellishment of two guild temples.
91. Rowe, Hankow: Commerce and Society, p. 258.
92. Ibid.
93. Ibid., pp. 297-298.
94. Ibid., pp. 334-337.
95. Ibid., p. 334.
96. Chen, "The Origins of Chinese Chambers of Commerce", p. 169, especially n. 7.
97. Ibid., p. 191.
98. Peng, Zhongguo gongshang hanghui shiliao ji, II, pp. 985-986, "Gong shang tongye gonghui guize" [Regulations on Industrial and Commercial Associations], decree no. 45 of the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce (Nongshang bu), promulgated 27 April 1918.
99. Ibid., p. 985, § 2.
100. Ibid., p. 986, § 9. The commercial and craft associations founded before these regulations were issued are referred to as gongsuo, hanghui, and huiguan - an early occurrence of the term hanghui.
101. Burgess, The Guilds of Peking, p. 65.
102. Burgess reports that guilds with a relatively recent date of foundation, such as the dyestuff guild and the electricians' guild, had no patron saints; ibid., p. 175.
103. Ibid., p. 214.
104. Guild membership dropped from 354 to 40; ibid., p. 221.
105. Ibid., p. 223.
106. Elizabeth Perry, Shanghai on Strike: The Politics of Chinese Labor (Stanford, CA, 1993), pp. 95-103.
107. Jiangnan zaochuanchang shi bianxie zu (ed.), Jiangnan zaochuanchang shi, 1865-1949 [History of the Shipyard of the Jiangnan Arsenal, 1865-1949) (Shanghai, 1975), p. 26.
108. For a variant perspective on guilds in the Jiangnan arsenal, see Christine Cornet, Etat et entreprises en Chine XIXe-XXe siècles: Le chantier naval de Jiangnan, 1865-1937 (Paris, 1997), pp. 136-137. Cornet stresses that the occupational guilds were always also regional guilds.
109. For a case in point, see Perry, Shanghai on Strike, p. 39, when, in 1902, within one shipbuilding company, the Ningbo shipwrights would not support a strike staged by the Canton shipwrights.
110. Linda Cooke Johnson, "Dock Labour at Shanghai", in Sam Davies et al. (eds), Dock Workers: International Explorations in Comparative Labour History, 1790-1970 (Aldershot, 2000), pp. 269-289, 274.
111. William T. Rowe, "The Qingbang and Collaboration under the Japanese, 1939-1945: Materials in the Wuhan Municipal Archives", Modern China, 8 (1982), pp. 491-499.
112. No. 267: Hubei, Hankou, Earth emperor palace (Tuhuang gong), built in 1867 by the journeymen plasterers of the Wen network at the Juren ward; no. 305: 1871, Hubei, Hankou, Sun guildhouse (Taiyang gongsuo), built in 1871 by the coal and charcoal journeymen's guild (Meitan shiyou gongyi hui); no. 417: Hubei, Hankou, Four saints hall (Si shen dian), the guildhouse of the firework journeymen, built in 1890; no. 389: Hunan, Changsha, Regulations (tiaogui) negotiated in 1887 by the journeymen of the lacquerers' shops; no. 554: Guangxu era (1875-1908), Hunan, Changsha, Western network tailors' trade (Xi bang chengyi ye). The Changsha tailors had seven associations. The Xuanyuan and the Luck Supporting Association were organized by the masters, the Lords of Luck, Luck and Excellence, Rising Luck, Luck Producing, and Luck and Bliss associations were organized by the journeymen. In the Guangxu era the colleagues reunited and revised their old regulations; no. 555: Guangxu (1875-1908), Hunan, Changsha, Fair Business Hall (Zheng ye tang), established by journeymen and masters of the brush shops (bidian). Formerly journeymen and masters belonged to separate networks (bang). After the construction of the Fair Business Hall, they united, but their separate regulations still applied.
113. Christine Moll-Murata, "Social Harmony and Social Unrest: Guild Activities in Qing Dynasty Peking", in Chiu Ling-yeong and Donatella Guida (eds), A Passion for China (Leiden, 2005), pp. 265-266, for the strikes of the shoemaker journeymen's guild that was founded some decades before the respective shop owners' association. Bradstock, "Craft Guilds", p. 231, mentions a Changsha tinsmith journeymen's guild.
114. Burgess, The Guilds of Peking, p. 224.
115. Ibid., p. 230. Canton was the capital of an alternative military government established in 1917 under Sun Yatscn.
116. Ibid., p. 225, quoting Ta Chen and S.K. Sheldon Tso, "The Unionization of Labor in China", Monthly Labor Review (November 1927).
117. Burgess, The Guilds of Peking, pp. 227-229.
118. Peng, Zhongguo gongshang hanghui shiliao ji, II, pp. 990-995, "Gongyi tongye gonghui guize", promulgated by the Ministry of Agriculture and Industry (Nonggong bu) on 21 November 1927.
119. Ibid., p. 995, § 36.
120. Ibid., p. 990, §§ 2 and 3.
121. Ibid., § 12.
122. Peng, Hanghui zhidu, p. 76.
123. Ibid., p. 78.
124. Niida, Pekin kōshō girudo shiryōshū, II, p. 294.
125. Ibid., III, p. 529.
126. Ibid., interview at the furriers' association, p. 561
127. ("there was no advantage in establishing commercial or trade associations"); carpenters' guild, IV, p. 652
128. ("the only advantage of guild membership is being able to see the theatre performances"); jade carvers' association, I, p. 38
129. ("it is no advantage to be a member of the [new] association (gonghui)"); gold and silver smelters' association, I, p. 127
130. ("nobody wants to become a director of the association (tongye gonghui huizhang). It [is a rotational task that brings no advantages and] costs money"). See also Bradstock, "Craft Guilds", p. 247.
131. Ibid., p. 242.
132. On the northern shore of Lake Poyang, c.100 kilometres from Jingdezhen by water.
133. Liang Miaotai, Ming Qing Jingdezhen chengshi jingji yanjiu [Research on the Urban Economy of Ming and Qing Jingdezhen] (Nanchang, 1991), p. 216.
134. "Jingdezhen de fengqing vu meili de zhuanshuo" [Jingdezhen Customs and Beautiful Legends], available at http://auto.sohu.com/20050727/ n240199132.shtml [last accessed 21 July 2008];
135. Jingdezhen shi difangzhi bangongshi (ed.), Zhongguo cidu Jingdezhen shi ciye zhi Sbizhi er juan [Monograph on the Porcelain Industry of China's Porcelain City Jingdezhen], 2 vols (Beijing, 2004), II, pp. 775-781, "Ciye hanggui" [Rules of Trade of the Porcelain Makers].
136. Peng Zeyi, Zhongguo jindai shougongyesbi ziliao [Materials on Early Modern Chinese Craft History), 4 vols (Beijing, 1962-1984), I, p. 184, quoting from a gazetteer of Duchang county compiled in the 1870s, Tongzhi Duchang xianzhi.
137. "Jingdezhen de fengqing", section 10: "After production is stopped in the XIIth month, the workers have nothing to do. To make a living, they sell a great quantity of vegetables, other regional products and eel, small fish, and freshwater snails in the streets."
138. Jingdezhen taoci shigao [A Draft History of Jingdezhen Porcelain] (Beijing, 1959), p. 322: seven from Hubei, six from Jiangxi, two from Manchuria, two from Zhejiang, two from Anhui, one each from Tianjin, Guangdong, Henan, Sichuan, Peking, Jiangsu, and Hunan.
139. Rose Kerr (ed.), Ceramic Technology [V, pt. 12 of Science and Civilisation in China] (Cambridge, 2004), p. 771, n. 230, quoting Stanley Fowler Wright, Kiangsi Native Trade and its Taxation (Shanghai, 1920), pp. 191-192. Fees were predetermined, and conditions were very restrictive.
140. Wang Siqing, Jingdezhen ciye shi [History of the Ceramic Industry in Jingdezhen] (Shanghai, 1936), pp. 183-185.
141. Jingdezhen taoci shigao, p. 299.
142. Bradstock, "Craft Guilds", p. 253.
143. Consider the story cited by Antonia Finnane, Speaking of Yangzhou: A Chinese City, 1550-1850 (Cambridge, MA, 2004), p. 231, about the Huizhou merchant's wife who bought a pearl every year her husband was away from home. The husband returned three years after her death and found that she had bought twenty pearls over the years.
144. See the section on spatial structures of the guild system in Ehmer's article in the present volume, pp. 143-158.
145. For a sketch of the regional variations in Dutch guilds and neighbouring Zunftlandschaften, see Jan Lucassen and Maarten Prak, "Conclusion", in Maarten Prak et al. (eds), Craft Guilds in the Early Modern Low Countries: Work, Power and Representation (Aldershot, 2006), pp. 224-23I, 228ff.
146. Jan de Vries, European Urbanization, 1500-1800 (London, 1984), p. 262.
147. Gilbert Rozman, Urban Networks in Ch'ing China and Tokugawa Japan (Princeton, NJ, 1973), p. 300,
148. cited in Ramon Myers and Wang Yeh-chien, "Economic Developments, 1644-1800", in Willard J. Peterson (ed.), The Cambridge History of China, IX, part 1: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800 (Cambridge, 2002), p, 579.
149. Bert De Munck, Piet Lourens, and Jan Lucassen, "The Establishment and Distribution of Craft Guilds in the Low Countries, 1000-1800", in Prak, Craft Guilds in the Early Modern Low Countries, pp. 32-73, 72.
150. Johnson, "Dock Labour at Shanghai", pp. 271ff.;
151. Perry, Shanghai on Strike, pp. 27, 54-55.
152. Chow Kai-wing, Publishing, Culture, and Power in Early Modern China (Stanford, CA, 2004), pp. 141-142, especially n. 281, for a case dating from c.1650 when a complaint to a local magistrate by a publisher was successful.
153. Cynthia Brokaw, Commerce in Culture: The Sibao Book Trade in the Qing and Republican Periods (Cambridge, MA, 2007), p. 179, cites an example when a similar complaint was turned down.
154. Christopher Reed, Gutenberg in Shanghai: Chinese Print Capitalism, 1876-1937 (Vancouver, BC, 2004), p. 177.
155. Kerr, Ceramic Technology, p. 212.
156. Ehmer, "Artisans, Guilds and Craft Regulations", pp. 72-73.
157. See Clare Crowston's article in the present volume (pp. 19-44) for discussion of women's guilds in Paris, Rouen, and Cologne.
158. Peng, Zhongguo gongshang hanghui shiliao ji, II, pp. 997-1048, "Short Table", p. 1017.
159. For the clashes from 1922 to 1924 between a network-connected (Green network and/or Red network) union-type women's silk filature workers' association and the Cocoon Guild of Jiangnan filature owners, see Perry, Shanghai on Strike, pp. 171-175.
160. Finnane, Speaking of Yangzhou, p. 241.
161. Brokaw, Commerce in Culture, p. 240.
162. See the reference to unguilded artisans in Bulgarian cities in Onur Yildirim's contribution to the present volume, pp. 73-93.
163. See Roy's article in the present volume (pp. 95-120) for a discussion of the rise and function of Indian informal socioeconomic collectives.