Toward "One enlightened and progressive civilization": Discourses of expansion and nineteenth-century Chinese missions abroad

Journal of World History

Volumn 8, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 135-156

  Desnoyers, Charles ^a  

^a LA SALLE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 5644258572     PISSN: 10456007     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (94)

1. The huiguan were Chinese regional mutual-aid societies. The San Francisco huiguan were collectively known as the Six Companies. The account of Minister Chen's arrival may be found in his travel journal, Shi mei jilue (A brief account of my trip to America), in Wang Xiji, Xiaofanghu zhai yudi congchao (Shanghai: n.p., 1894), no. 12, p. 10049; see also San Francisco Call, 27 July 1878 . For the anti-Chinese riot of 24-27 July 1877, see Alexander Saxton, The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), p. 114.
2. The huiguan were Chinese regional mutual-aid societies. The San Francisco huiguan were collectively known as the Six Companies. The account of Minister Chen's arrival may be found in his travel journal, Shi mei jilue (A brief account of my trip to America), in Wang Xiji, Xiaofanghu zhai yudi congchao (Shanghai: n.p., 1894), no. 12, p. 10049; see also San Francisco Call, 27 July 1878 . For the anti-Chinese riot of 24-27 July 1877, see Alexander Saxton, The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), p. 114.
3. The huiguan were Chinese regional mutual-aid societies. The San Francisco huiguan were collectively known as the Six Companies. The account of Minister Chen's arrival may be found in his travel journal, Shi mei jilue (A brief account of my trip to America), in Wang Xiji, Xiaofanghu zhai yudi congchao (Shanghai: n.p., 1894), no. 12, p. 10049; see also San Francisco Call, 27 July 1878 . For the anti-Chinese riot of 24-27 July 1877, see Alexander Saxton, The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), p. 114.
4. Cited in John K. Fairhank, "The Early Treaty System in the Chinese World Order," in The Chinese World Order, ed. John K. Fairhank (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968), 265.
5. P. W. Dooner, The Lost Days of the Republic (San Francisco: Alta California Publishing House, 1880), p. 22.
6. Joanna Waley-Cohen, "China and Western Technology in the Late Eighteenth Century," American Historical Review 98 (1993): 1526-27, 1534-35; and James M. Polachek, The Inner Opium War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992), pp. 3, 7.
7. Joanna Waley-Cohen, "China and Western Technology in the Late Eighteenth Century," American Historical Review 98 (1993): 1526-27, 1534-35; and James M. Polachek, The Inner Opium War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992), pp. 3, 7.
8. Paul Cohen, Discovering History in China: American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984); also Mary C. Wright, The Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism: The T'ung Chih Restoration, 1862-1874 (New York: Atheneum, 1966); and Joseph Levenson, Confucian China and its Modern Fate, 3 vols. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1958-65).
9. Paul Cohen, Discovering History in China: American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984); also Mary C. Wright, The Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism: The T'ung Chih Restoration, 1862-1874 (New York: Atheneum, 1966); and Joseph Levenson, Confucian China and its Modern Fate, 3 vols. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1958-65).
10. Paul Cohen, Discovering History in China: American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984); also Mary C. Wright, The Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism: The T'ung Chih Restoration, 1862-1874 (New York: Atheneum, 1966); and Joseph Levenson, Confucian China and its Modern Fate, 3 vols. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1958-65).
11. Cohen, Discovering History, pp. 149-98 passim. The preface to the 1980 Hunan renmin edition of Li Gui's Huan you diqiu xin lu (A new account of a trip around the globe) discusses the similarity of the modern slogan yang wei zhong yong (use foreign things to help China) to nineteenth-century formulations (p. 4).
12. The sources on all of these topics are far too numerous to list here. However, the reader may wish to consult Immanuel C. Y. Hsu, China's Entrance into the Family of Nations: The Diplomatic Phase, 1858-1880 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960); Robert Irick, Ch'ing Policy toward the Coolie Trade, 1847-1878 (Taipei: Chinese Materials Center 1982); Samuel Chu and Kwang-ching Liu, eds., Li Hung-chang and China's Early Modernization (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1994); Min Tu-ki, National Polity and Local Power: The Transformation of Late Imperial China (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989); and Albert Feuerwerker, The Chinese Economy, ca. 1870-1911 (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1969). It should also be noted that this was the decade of the Margary affair, the alarming Japanese expedition against Taiwan, trouble with Russia in Ili, and the loss of Ryukyu Islands to Japan.
13. The sources on all of these topics are far too numerous to list here. However, the reader may wish to consult Immanuel C. Y. Hsu, China's Entrance into the Family of Nations: The Diplomatic Phase, 1858-1880 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960); Robert Irick, Ch'ing Policy toward the Coolie Trade, 1847-1878 (Taipei: Chinese Materials Center 1982); Samuel Chu and Kwang-ching Liu, eds., Li Hung-chang and China's Early Modernization (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1994); Min Tu-ki, National Polity and Local Power: The Transformation of Late Imperial China (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989); and Albert Feuerwerker, The Chinese Economy, ca. 1870-1911 (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1969). It should also be noted that this was the decade of the Margary affair, the alarming Japanese expedition against Taiwan, trouble with Russia in Ili, and the loss of Ryukyu Islands to Japan.
14. The sources on all of these topics are far too numerous to list here. However, the reader may wish to consult Immanuel C. Y. Hsu, China's Entrance into the Family of Nations: The Diplomatic Phase, 1858-1880 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960); Robert Irick, Ch'ing Policy toward the Coolie Trade, 1847-1878 (Taipei: Chinese Materials Center 1982); Samuel Chu and Kwang-ching Liu, eds., Li Hung-chang and China's Early Modernization (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1994); Min Tu-ki, National Polity and Local Power: The Transformation of Late Imperial China (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989); and Albert Feuerwerker, The Chinese Economy, ca. 1870-1911 (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1969). It should also be noted that this was the decade of the Margary affair, the alarming Japanese expedition against Taiwan, trouble with Russia in Ili, and the loss of Ryukyu Islands to Japan.
15. The sources on all of these topics are far too numerous to list here. However, the reader may wish to consult Immanuel C. Y. Hsu, China's Entrance into the Family of Nations: The Diplomatic Phase, 1858-1880 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960); Robert Irick, Ch'ing Policy toward the Coolie Trade, 1847-1878 (Taipei: Chinese Materials Center 1982); Samuel Chu and Kwang-ching Liu, eds., Li Hung-chang and China's Early Modernization (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1994); Min Tu-ki, National Polity and Local Power: The Transformation of Late Imperial China (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989); and Albert Feuerwerker, The Chinese Economy, ca. 1870-1911 (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1969). It should also be noted that this was the decade of the Margary affair, the alarming Japanese expedition against Taiwan, trouble with Russia in Ili, and the loss of Ryukyu Islands to Japan.
16. The sources on all of these topics are far too numerous to list here. However, the reader may wish to consult Immanuel C. Y. Hsu, China's Entrance into the Family of Nations: The Diplomatic Phase, 1858-1880 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960); Robert Irick, Ch'ing Policy toward the Coolie Trade, 1847-1878 (Taipei: Chinese Materials Center 1982); Samuel Chu and Kwang-ching Liu, eds., Li Hung-chang and China's Early Modernization (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1994); Min Tu-ki, National Polity and Local Power: The Transformation of Late Imperial China (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989); and Albert Feuerwerker, The Chinese Economy, ca. 1870-1911 (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1969). It should also be noted that this was the decade of the Margary affair, the alarming Japanese expedition against Taiwan, trouble with Russia in Ili, and the loss of Ryukyu Islands to Japan.
17. Thomas Metzger, Escape from Predicament: Neoconfucianism and China's Evolving Political Culture (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977), p. 215.
18. Zhang Yinhuan, Sanzhou riji (Diary from three continents) (Beijing: n.p., 1896), 1.52b-53b, in David Arkush and Leo O. Less, eds., Land without Ghosts: Chinese Impressions of America from the Mid-Nineteenth Century to the Present (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), pp. 74-75. It should be noted that the kind of "Panglossian optimism spread over much of Chinese thought" cited by Metzger (Escape from Predicament, p. 215) is more characteristic of the writings of Kang Youwei and Zheng Guanying in the 1890s than of the men under consideration here. While the latter introduce most of the same themes, their travels also tended to temper their judgments as to the immediate possibilities of Western-aided Confucian renewal.
19. Zhang Yinhuan, Sanzhou riji (Diary from three continents) (Beijing: n.p., 1896), 1.52b-53b, in David Arkush and Leo O. Less, eds., Land without Ghosts: Chinese Impressions of America from the Mid-Nineteenth Century to the Present (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), pp. 74-75. It should be noted that the kind of "Panglossian optimism spread over much of Chinese thought" cited by Metzger (Escape from Predicament, p. 215) is more characteristic of the writings of Kang Youwei and Zheng Guanying in the 1890s than of the men under consideration here. While the latter introduce most of the same themes, their travels also tended to temper their judgments as to the immediate possibilities of Western-aided Confucian renewal.
20. Zhang Yinhuan, Sanzhou riji (Diary from three continents) (Beijing: n.p., 1896), 1.52b-53b, in David Arkush and Leo O. Less, eds., Land without Ghosts: Chinese Impressions of America from the Mid-Nineteenth Century to the Present (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), pp. 74-75. It should be noted that the kind of "Panglossian optimism spread over much of Chinese thought" cited by Metzger (Escape from Predicament, p. 215) is more characteristic of the writings of Kang Youwei and Zheng Guanying in the 1890s than of the men under consideration here. While the latter introduce most of the same themes, their travels also tended to temper their judgments as to the immediate possibilities of Western-aided Confucian renewal.
21. Helen Hsieh Chien, trans., The European Diary of Hsieh Fucheng, Envoy Extraordinary of Imperial China (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993), entry for 21 July 1890, p. 35. The character for the surname Xue may also be pronounced "Xie" (Hsieh). Helen Hsieh Chien, Xue Fucheng's great-granddaughter, contends that he preferred the latter pronunciation (p. xxii).
22. New York Times, 29 September 1878. Significantly, Chen's credentials (like those of other early ministers) noted that the emperor "regarded Chinese and foreigners as one family [zhong wai yijia]" with the implicit assumption of his global paternal sway. See "Notes From Foreign Legations, China," microfilm, M 98, Roll 1, National Archives.
23. New York Times, 29 September 1878. Significantly, Chen's credentials (like those of other early ministers) noted that the emperor "regarded Chinese and foreigners as one family [zhong wai yijia]" with the implicit assumption of his global paternal sway. See "Notes From Foreign Legations, China," microfilm, M 98, Roll 1, National Archives.
24. For source material on Chen Lanbin, see Charles Desnoyers, "Self-Strengthening in the New World: A Chinese Envoy's Travels in America," Pacific Historical Review 60 (1991): 195-219; and "'The Thin Edge of the Wedge': The Chinese Educational Mission and Diplomatic Representation in the Americas, 1872-1875," Pacific Historical Review 61 (1992): 241-63. On "pragmatic Confucianism," see Kwang-ching Liu "The Confucian as Patriot and Pragmatist: Li Hung-chang's Formative Years," in Chu and Liu, eds., Li Hungchang, pp. 17-48.
25. For source material on Chen Lanbin, see Charles Desnoyers, "Self-Strengthening in the New World: A Chinese Envoy's Travels in America," Pacific Historical Review 60 (1991): 195-219; and "'The Thin Edge of the Wedge': The Chinese Educational Mission and Diplomatic Representation in the Americas, 1872-1875," Pacific Historical Review 61 (1992): 241-63. On "pragmatic Confucianism," see Kwang-ching Liu "The Confucian as Patriot and Pragmatist: Li Hung-chang's Formative Years," in Chu and Liu, eds., Li Hungchang, pp. 17-48.
26. For source material on Chen Lanbin, see Charles Desnoyers, "Self-Strengthening in the New World: A Chinese Envoy's Travels in America," Pacific Historical Review 60 (1991): 195-219; and "'The Thin Edge of the Wedge': The Chinese Educational Mission and Diplomatic Representation in the Americas, 1872-1875," Pacific Historical Review 61 (1992): 241-63. On "pragmatic Confucianism," see Kwang-ching Liu "The Confucian as Patriot and Pragmatist: Li Hung-chang's Formative Years," in Chu and Liu, eds., Li Hungchang, pp. 17-48.
27. For sources on the Education Mission, see Desnoyers, "The Thin Edge of the Wedge'," pp. 243n, 245n.
28. Li Gui, Huan you diqiu xinlu, p. 69.
29. Li Gui, Huan you diqiu xinlu, pp. 105-106.
30. Li Gui, Huan you diqiu xinlu, pp. 106-107.
31. Chad Hansen, "Individualism in Chinese Thought," in Individualism and Holism: Studies in Confucian and Taoist Values, ed. Donald J. Munro (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan Press, 1985), p. 37. In the Xiaojing (The classic of filial piety), for example, Confucius starts with the premise that the relationship of parent to offspring is the fundamental pattern of nature, and therefore the one upon which a society in keeping with the dao should be based. From this insight he then outlines the appropriate behavior for all classes of society in part-whole terms.
32. Daxue (The great learning), I.5. See Confucius, Analects, Great Learning and Doctrine of the Mean, trans. James Legge (New York: Dover, 1971), p. 358.
33. Daxue (The great learning), I.5. See Confucius, Analects, Great Learning and Doctrine of the Mean, trans. James Legge (New York: Dover, 1971), p. 358.
34. Daxue zhangju (Sentences and phrases of the Great Learning), 6a-b. Cited in William T. de Bary, "Neo-Confucian Individualism and Holism," in Munro, ed., Individualism and Holism, p. 338.
35. Daxue zhangju (Sentences and phrases of the Great Learning), 6a-b. Cited in William T. de Bary, "Neo-Confucian Individualism and Holism," in Munro, ed., Individualism and Holism, p. 338.
36. For Wo Ren (Wo Jen), see John K. Fairbank and Ssu-yü Teng, China's Response to the West: A Documentary Survey (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979), pp. 76-77. Liu Xihong, Yingyao riji (Journal of a voyage to England), in The First Chinese Embassy to the West, trans. J. D. Frodsham (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1974), pp. 112-13. It should be noted that Liu did not discount the advantages of learning about Western technology. He simply felt that it was not the proper course of study for officials .
37. For Wo Ren (Wo Jen), see John K. Fairbank and Ssu-yü Teng, China's Response to the West: A Documentary Survey (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979), pp. 76-77. Liu Xihong, Yingyao riji (Journal of a voyage to England), in The First Chinese Embassy to the West, trans. J. D. Frodsham (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1974), pp. 112-13. It should be noted that Liu did not discount the advantages of learning about Western technology. He simply felt that it was not the proper course of study for officials .
38. Liu Yingyao riji, 161a, in Frodsham, First Chinese Embassy, p. 113; The Works of Mencius, trans. James Legge (New York: Dover, 1970) pp. 125-27. See also Deng Gang Development versus Stagnation: Technological Continuity and Agricultural Progress in Pre-Modern China (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1993), for an account of the role of officials in promoting Chinese agriculture.
39. Liu Yingyao riji, 161a, in Frodsham, First Chinese Embassy, p. 113; The Works of Mencius, trans. James Legge (New York: Dover, 1970) pp. 125-27. See also Deng Gang Development versus Stagnation: Technological Continuity and Agricultural Progress in Pre-Modern China (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1993), for an account of the role of officials in promoting Chinese agriculture.
40. Liu Yingyao riji, 161a, in Frodsham, First Chinese Embassy, p. 113; The Works of Mencius, trans. James Legge (New York: Dover, 1970) pp. 125-27. See also Deng Gang Development versus Stagnation: Technological Continuity and Agricultural Progress in Pre-Modern China (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1993), for an account of the role of officials in promoting Chinese agriculture.
41. Liu Yingyao riji, 161a, in Frodsham, First Chinese Embassy, p. 113; The Works of Mencius, trans. James Legge (New York: Dover, 1970) pp. 125-27. See also Deng Gang Development versus Stagnation: Technological Continuity and Agricultural Progress in Pre-Modern China (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1993), for an account of the role of officials in promoting Chinese agriculture.
42. Albert Feuerwerker, China's Early Industrialization: Sheng Hsuan-huai and Mandarin Enterprise (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1958) which is essentially a history of the China Merchants' Steam Navigation Company. An updated treatment of the company may be found in Chi-kong Lai, "Li Hungchang and Modern Enterprise: The China Merchants Company, 1872-1885," in Chu and Liu, eds., Li Hung-chang, pp. 216-47.
43. Albert Feuerwerker, China's Early Industrialization: Sheng Hsuan-huai and Mandarin Enterprise (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1958) which is essentially a history of the China Merchants' Steam Navigation Company. An updated treatment of the company may be found in Chi-kong Lai, "Li Hungchang and Modern Enterprise: The China Merchants Company, 1872-1885," in Chu and Liu, eds., Li Hung-chang, pp. 216-47.
44. Lai, "Li Hung-chang and Modern Enterprise," p. 224, and, for the sale of the Shanghai Merchants' Steam Navigation Company, p. 223.
45. Chen Lanbin to the throne, Dao xian tong guang sichao zouyi (Memorials of the Daoguang, Xianfeng, Tongzhi, and Guangxu reigns), 3079-81. The figures are also cited in Lai "Li Hung-chang," p. 224. Chen's view may be one of the earliest direct expressions of what would be championed by Zheng Guanying as "trade war" in the 1890s. See Hu Jichuang, A Concise History of Chinese Economic Thought (Beijing: Foreign Language Press 1988), p. 539. However, other officials - including Xue Fucheng, Ma Jianzhong, and, of course, Li Hongzhang - were working in similar directions. See, for instance, Hsieh, Hsieh Fucheng, p. xv; and Teng and Fairbank, China's Response, p. 96.
46. Chen Lanbin to the throne, Dao xian tong guang sichao zouyi (Memorials of the Daoguang, Xianfeng, Tongzhi, and Guangxu reigns), 3079-81. The figures are also cited in Lai "Li Hung-chang," p. 224. Chen's view may be one of the earliest direct expressions of what would be championed by Zheng Guanying as "trade war" in the 1890s. See Hu Jichuang, A Concise History of Chinese Economic Thought (Beijing: Foreign Language Press 1988), p. 539. However, other officials - including Xue Fucheng, Ma Jianzhong, and, of course, Li Hongzhang - were working in similar directions. See, for instance, Hsieh, Hsieh Fucheng, p. xv; and Teng and Fairbank, China's Response, p. 96.
47. Chen Lanbin to the throne, Dao xian tong guang sichao zouyi (Memorials of the Daoguang, Xianfeng, Tongzhi, and Guangxu reigns), 3079-81. The figures are also cited in Lai "Li Hung-chang," p. 224. Chen's view may be one of the earliest direct expressions of what would be championed by Zheng Guanying as "trade war" in the 1890s. See Hu Jichuang, A Concise History of Chinese Economic Thought (Beijing: Foreign Language Press 1988), p. 539. However, other officials - including Xue Fucheng, Ma Jianzhong, and, of course, Li Hongzhang - were working in similar directions. See, for instance, Hsieh, Hsieh Fucheng, p. xv; and Teng and Fairbank, China's Response, p. 96.
48. Chen Lanbin to the throne, Dao xian tong guang sichao zouyi (Memorials of the Daoguang, Xianfeng, Tongzhi, and Guangxu reigns), 3079-81. The figures are also cited in Lai "Li Hung-chang," p. 224. Chen's view may be one of the earliest direct expressions of what would be championed by Zheng Guanying as "trade war" in the 1890s. See Hu Jichuang, A Concise History of Chinese Economic Thought (Beijing: Foreign Language Press 1988), p. 539. However, other officials - including Xue Fucheng, Ma Jianzhong, and, of course, Li Hongzhang - were working in similar directions. See, for instance, Hsieh, Hsieh Fucheng, p. xv; and Teng and Fairbank, China's Response, p. 96.
49. Chen Lanbin to the throne, Dao xian tong guang sichao zouyi (Memorials of the Daoguang, Xianfeng, Tongzhi, and Guangxu reigns), 3079-81. The figures are also cited in Lai "Li Hung-chang," p. 224. Chen's view may be one of the earliest direct expressions of what would be championed by Zheng Guanying as "trade war" in the 1890s. See Hu Jichuang, A Concise History of Chinese Economic Thought (Beijing: Foreign Language Press 1988), p. 539. However, other officials - including Xue Fucheng, Ma Jianzhong, and, of course, Li Hongzhang - were working in similar directions. See, for instance, Hsieh, Hsieh Fucheng, p. xv; and Teng and Fairbank, China's Response, p. 96.
50. For sources on diplomatic relations and the overseas Chinese, the standard English-language accounts remain Robert W. Irick, Ch'ing Policy toward the Coolie Trade, 1847-1878 (Taipei: Chinese Materials Center, 1982); and Shih-shan Henry Tsai, China and the Overseas Chinese in the United States, 1868-1911 (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1985). A revised look at diplomatic issues may also be found in Desnoyers, "'The Thin Edge of the Wedge'," pp. 241-63.
51. For sources on diplomatic relations and the overseas Chinese, the standard English-language accounts remain Robert W. Irick, Ch'ing Policy toward the Coolie Trade, 1847-1878 (Taipei: Chinese Materials Center, 1982); and Shih-shan Henry Tsai, China and the Overseas Chinese in the United States, 1868-1911 (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1985). A revised look at diplomatic issues may also be found in Desnoyers, "'The Thin Edge of the Wedge'," pp. 241-63.
52. For sources on diplomatic relations and the overseas Chinese, the standard English-language accounts remain Robert W. Irick, Ch'ing Policy toward the Coolie Trade, 1847-1878 (Taipei: Chinese Materials Center, 1982); and Shih-shan Henry Tsai, China and the Overseas Chinese in the United States, 1868-1911 (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1985). A revised look at diplomatic issues may also be found in Desnoyers, "'The Thin Edge of the Wedge'," pp. 241-63.
53. Hsu, China's Entrance into the Family of Nations, p. 161. For criticism of officials who would go abroad, especially Guo Songtao and Chen Lanbin, see Li Ziming Yueman tang riji (Diary of Yueman study), 51 vols. (Shanghai, 1921), 9:4824 (entry for 3 November 1876). Among other things, Li opined that officials willing to go abroad were venal and corrupt, and would sell out China at the first opportunity.
54. Hsu, China's Entrance into the Family of Nations, p. 161. For criticism of officials who would go abroad, especially Guo Songtao and Chen Lanbin, see Li Ziming Yueman tang riji (Diary of Yueman study), 51 vols. (Shanghai, 1921), 9:4824 (entry for 3 November 1876). Among other things, Li opined that officials willing to go abroad were venal and corrupt, and would sell out China at the first opportunity.
55. For the official Chinese account of Burlingame's mission, see Yiwu shimo: Tongzhi, 51:27b. One of the minister's "colleagues," Zhigang, also kept a diary of the mission, Chu shi taixi ji (The first mission to the far west) (Shanghai, 1877). Another account, that of Zhang Deyi, is discussed more fully below.
56. For the official Chinese account of Burlingame's mission, see Yiwu shimo: Tongzhi, 51:27b. One of the minister's "colleagues," Zhigang, also kept a diary of the mission, Chu shi taixi ji (The first mission to the far west) (Shanghai, 1877). Another account, that of Zhang Deyi, is discussed more fully below.
57. For a comprehensive account of these missions and sources, see Irick, Ch'ing Policy, pp. 295-97; and Desnoyers, "'The Thin Edge of the Wedge'," pp. 254-55. See also Chen Lanbin, A. Huber, and A. Macpherson, Chinese Emigration: The Cuba Commission Report (Shanghai, 1876).
58. For a comprehensive account of these missions and sources, see Irick, Ch'ing Policy, pp. 295-97; and Desnoyers, "'The Thin Edge of the Wedge'," pp. 254-55. See also Chen Lanbin, A. Huber, and A. Macpherson, Chinese Emigration: The Cuba Commission Report (Shanghai, 1876).
59. For a comprehensive account of these missions and sources, see Irick, Ch'ing Policy, pp. 295-97; and Desnoyers, "'The Thin Edge of the Wedge'," pp. 254-55. See also Chen Lanbin, A. Huber, and A. Macpherson, Chinese Emigration: The Cuba Commission Report (Shanghai, 1876).
60. Yiwu shimo: Tongzhi, 100:9b-10b; an English version may be found in Avery to Fish, 16 July 1875, "Wang K'ai-t'ai to the Throne, December 20, 1874," Foreign Relations of the United States, 1874, p. 380.
61. Yiwu shimo: Tongzhi, 100:9b-10b; an English version may be found in Avery to Fish, 16 July 1875, "Wang K'ai-t'ai to the Throne, December 20, 1874," Foreign Relations of the United States, 1874, p. 380.
62. Evarts to Chen Lanbin, 23 November 1880, enclosure, "A Proclamation by the President of the United States of America," microfilm, M99, Roll 1, National Archives.
63. Chang-fen Chen, "Barbarian Paradise: Chinese Views of the United States, 1784-1911" (Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1985).
64. Hsieh, Hsieh Fucheng, p. 40.
65. Zhang Deyi, Ou mei huanyou ji (An account of travels in Europe and America) (Changsha: Hunan renmin, 1981). For an English-language translation, see Zhang Deyi, Diary of a Chinese Diplomat, trans. Simon Johnstone (Beijing: Chinese Literature Press, 1992).
66. Zhang Deyi, Ou mei huanyou ji (An account of travels in Europe and America) (Changsha: Hunan renmin, 1981). For an English-language translation, see Zhang Deyi, Diary of a Chinese Diplomat, trans. Simon Johnstone (Beijing: Chinese Literature Press, 1992).
67. Zhang Deyi, Diary, pp. 60-61.
68. Zhang Deyi, Diary, pp. 82-83. Zhang further recorded that several Americans who overheard the conversation heartily concurred with his sentiments.
69. Zhang Deyi, Diary, pp. 150, 208, 198-99. Following a fall from a horse in France, Zhang became seriously ill. Despite the efforts - and protests - of an assortment of Western physicians who insisted on leeching him and treating him with hot wraps, he only showed improvement when finally given Chinese medicine (pp. 320-31).
70. Zhang Deyi, Diary, pp. 251-52.
71. Gu Jishi "Zuizao yi bu Zhongguoren xie de Meiguo you ji - jieshou Li Gui zhu 'Huan you diqiu xin lu' " (The earliest Chinese travel accounts of America - introducing Li Gui's "A New Account of a Trip around the Globe"), in Li Gui, Huan you, p. 2.
72. Li Hongzhang, "Li Hongzhang xu" (Li Hongzhang's preface), in Li Gui, Huan you, pp. 1-2.
73. Li Hongzhang, "Li Hongzhang xu" (Li Hongzhang's preface), in Li Gui, Huan you, p. 2.
74. Li Oui, "Zuozhe zi xu" (Author's preface), in Li Gui, Huan you, p. 1.
75. Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989). Li Gui, "Meihui jilue," in Huan you, p. 85b; trans. Chang-fan Chen, "Barbarian Paradise," p. 129.
76. Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989). Li Gui, "Meihui jilue," in Huan you, p. 85b; trans. Chang-fan Chen, "Barbarian Paradise," p. 129.
77. Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989). Li Gui, "Meihui jilue," in Huan you, p. 85b; trans. Chang-fan Chen, "Barbarian Paradise," p. 129.
78. Li Gui, "Meihui jilue," in Huan you; translation in Arkush and Lee, eds., Land without Ghosts, p. 44.
79. Li Gui, "Meihui jilue," in Huan you; translation in Arkush and Lee, eds., Land without Ghosts, p. 44.
80. Carl Jung, Modern Man in Search of a Soul (New York, 1933), pp. 196-97; cited in Chen, "Barbarian Paradise," p. 139.
81. Carl Jung, Modern Man in Search of a Soul (New York, 1933), pp. 196-97; cited in Chen, "Barbarian Paradise," p. 139.
82. Hsieh, Hsieh Fucheng, pp. 184 (on qi and the five elements) and 21 (quotation).
83. Hsieh, Hsieh Fucheng, p. 65. F or the term sinitic frontier, see Eve Armentrout-Ma, "Urban Chinese at the Sinitic Frontier: Social Organizations in U.S. Chinatowns, 1848-98," Modern Asian Studies 17 (1982): 107-33.
84. Hsieh, Hsieh Fucheng, p. 65. F or the term sinitic frontier, see Eve Armentrout-Ma, "Urban Chinese at the Sinitic Frontier: Social Organizations in U.S. Chinatowns, 1848-98," Modern Asian Studies 17 (1982): 107-33.
85. Hsieh, Hsieh Fucheng, p. 35.
86. Hsieh, Hsieh Fucheng, p. 106.
87. Perry Link, Evening Chats in Beijing: Probing China's Predicament (New York: W. W. Norton, 1992), p. 52.
88. Tu Wei-ming, "Hsiung Shih-li's Quest for Authentic Existence," in Humanity and Self-Cultivation: Essays in Confucian Thought (Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press 1979), p. 237. Theodore Von Laue, The World Revolution of Westernization (Oxford: Oxford University Press 1987); Levenson, Confucian China and its Modern Fate.
89. Tu Wei-ming, "Hsiung Shih-li's Quest for Authentic Existence," in Humanity and Self-Cultivation: Essays in Confucian Thought (Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press 1979), p. 237. Theodore Von Laue, The World Revolution of Westernization (Oxford: Oxford University Press 1987); Levenson, Confucian China and its Modern Fate.
90. Tu Wei-ming, "Hsiung Shih-li's Quest for Authentic Existence," in Humanity and Self-Cultivation: Essays in Confucian Thought (Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press 1979), p. 237. Theodore Von Laue, The World Revolution of Westernization (Oxford: Oxford University Press 1987); Levenson, Confucian China and its Modern Fate.
91. Tu Wei-ming, "Hsiung Shih-li's Quest," p. 237. It is worth pointing out that Link has noted that Western Confucian scholars like Tu Wei-ming and Yu Ying-shih have had a following among mainland intellectuals for some time now. Link, Evening Chats, pp. 192-93.
92. Tu Wei-ming, "Hsiung Shih-li's Quest," p. 237. It is worth pointing out that Link has noted that Western Confucian scholars like Tu Wei-ming and Yu Ying-shih have had a following among mainland intellectuals for some time now. Link, Evening Chats, pp. 192-93.
93. Samuel P. Huntington, •The Clash of Civilizations," Foreign Affairs 72 (1993): 22-49; Richard Madsen, "After Liberalism: What If Confucianism Becomes the Hegemonic Ethic of the Twenty-First Century World Community?" paper presented to American Sociological Association annual meeting, Washington, D.C., 1995.
94. Samuel P. Huntington, •The Clash of Civilizations," Foreign Affairs 72 (1993): 22-49; Richard Madsen, "After Liberalism: What If Confucianism Becomes the Hegemonic Ethic of the Twenty-First Century World Community?" paper presented to American Sociological Association annual meeting, Washington, D.C., 1995.