The garden in the machine - An environmental history of Brazil's Tijuca forest

Environmental History

Volumn 1, Issue 1, 1996, Pages

  Drummond, José ^a  

^a FLUMINENSE FEDERAL UNIVERSITY   (Brazil)

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EID: 5644240876     PISSN: 10845453     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3985065     Document Type: Article

References (112)

1. My source for the contrasting images of gardens and machines is Leo Marx, The Machine in the Garden: Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America (London, England: Oxford University Press, 1964), a classic study of the representations of nature in American prose. While Marx analyzes the ways writers contrasted natural or pastoral landscapes and the artifacts of industrial society, I consider the replanted forest a "natural" construction inside the machinery of a metropolis.
2. In the mid-1980s Rio de Janeiro ranked ninth in the world's "largest urban agglomerations;" São Paulo ranked fifth. Preliminary results of the 1991 census recorded 6.7 million inhabitants for Rio de Janeiro. See Leon F. Bouvier, "Planet Earth 1984-2034: A Demographic Vision," Population Bulletin 39, no. 1 (February 1994): 13.
3. Unless otherwise specified, all population data and estimates are from Institute Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatistica (hereafter IBGE), Anuário Estatistico 1990 (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: IBGE, 1991), an official statistical handbook.
4. Tellingly, for census purposes the entire population of the municipality of Rio de Janeiro is classified as urban, accurately minimizing the importance of Rio's rural population. Two recent collections of research reports and essays give a comprehensive view of historical and contemporary aspects of Rio's interface with its natural surroundings: Edvaldo Pereira Lima, ed., Retratos da Baía (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: FAPERJ [Rio de Janeiro State Foundation for Research Support], 1994), provides a collection of science-based essays written by journalists about Rio's main body of water, Guanabara Bay; and Maurício de Almeida Abreu, ed., Natureza e Sociedade no Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Prefeitura da Cidade do Rio de Janeiro, Secretaria Municipal de Cultura, Turismo e Esportes, 1992), brings together monographs written by geographers interested in Rio's interfaces with its natural surroundings.
5. Tellingly, for census purposes the entire population of the municipality of Rio de Janeiro is classified as urban, accurately minimizing the importance of Rio's rural population. Two recent collections of research reports and essays give a comprehensive view of historical and contemporary aspects of Rio's interface with its natural surroundings: Edvaldo Pereira Lima, ed., Retratos da Baía (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: FAPERJ [Rio de Janeiro State Foundation for Research Support], 1994), provides a collection of science-based essays written by journalists about Rio's main body of water, Guanabara Bay; and Maurício de Almeida Abreu, ed., Natureza e Sociedade no Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Prefeitura da Cidade do Rio de Janeiro, Secretaria Municipal de Cultura, Turismo e Esportes, 1992), brings together monographs written by geographers interested in Rio's interfaces with its natural surroundings.
6. Central Park in New York City comprises 840 acres.
7. Institute Brasileiro de Densenvolvimento Florestal-Fundação Brasileira Conservação da Natureza (hereafter IBDF-FBCN), Plano de Manejo - Parque Nacional da Tijuca (Brasilia, Brazil: IBDF-FBCN, 1981), contains a comprehensive management plan for the Tijuca National Park. For more details on the contemporary management of Tijuca National Park, see José Drummond, National Parks in Brazil: A Study of 50 Years of Environmental Policy (with case studies of the National Parks in the state of Rio de Janeiro) (master's thesis, The Evergreen State College, 1988), pp. 371-83; authors observations.
8. Institute Brasileiro de Densenvolvimento Florestal-Fundação Brasileira Conservação da Natureza (hereafter IBDF-FBCN), Plano de Manejo - Parque Nacional da Tijuca (Brasilia, Brazil: IBDF-FBCN, 1981), contains a comprehensive management plan for the Tijuca National Park. For more details on the contemporary management of Tijuca National Park, see José Drummond, National Parks in Brazil: A Study of 50 Years of Environmental Policy (with case studies of the National Parks in the state of Rio de Janeiro) (master's thesis, The Evergreen State College, 1988), pp. 371-83; authors observations.
9. The famous statue of Christ the Redeemer (on top of Corcovado peak at 720 meters), lies inside Tijuca National Park, although not inside Tijuca Forest. It is the major tourist attraction, and on a clear day can be seen in its entirety from the city. IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, p. 31; author's observations.
10. IBDF-FBCN, Piano de Manejo, pp. 31-32; author's observations.
11. Firsthand accounts by Hans Staden, Duos Viagens ao Brasil (Belo Horizonte, Brazil: Itatiaia, 1980). and Jean de Léry, History of a Voyage to the Land of Brazil (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990). are important primary sources for the history of Rio de Janeiro's natural and human landscapes; they also discuss the skirmishes between the French and Portuguese and their alliances with different indigenes.
12. Firsthand accounts by Hans Staden, Duos Viagens ao Brasil (Belo Horizonte, Brazil: Itatiaia, 1980). and Jean de Léry, History of a Voyage to the Land of Brazil (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990). are important primary sources for the history of Rio de Janeiro's natural and human landscapes; they also discuss the skirmishes between the French and Portuguese and their alliances with different indigenes.
13. Ernani da Silva Bruno, História do Brasil-Geral e Regional: Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, Guanabara e Minas Gerais (São Paulo, Brazil: Cultrix, 1967), 4:13-46, contains a detailed account of the first European efforts to settle the Rio de Janeiro area.
14. Brazilwood is Caesalpina echinata. Europeans came to value its red wood as a dye source, but the difficulty in extracting and transporting the bulky logs overseas limited the trade.
15. Gilberto Freyre. The Masters and the Slaves, 2d ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1956), provides a sociological account of the "sugar-cane civilization" in northeastern Brazil. Freyre also compares European colonization efforts in Brazil with those elsewhere on the American continent.
16. Darcy Ribeiro, O Processo Civilizatório, 9th ed. (Petrópolis, Brazil: Vozes, 1987). Warren Dean, With Broadax and Firebrand: The Destruction of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), esp. pp. 20-90, broadly discusses the Tupi's relationship with southeastern Brazil's Atlantic tropical forests.
17. Darcy Ribeiro, O Processo Civilizatório, 9th ed. (Petrópolis, Brazil: Vozes, 1987). Warren Dean, With Broadax and Firebrand: The Destruction of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), esp. pp. 20-90, broadly discusses the Tupi's relationship with southeastern Brazil's Atlantic tropical forests.
18. Tereza Cristina Holetta Scheiner, "Ocupação Humana no Parque Nacional da Tijuca: Aspectos Gerais," Brasil Florestal 7, no. 28 (October-December 1976): 3-27, esp p. 5.
19. The Portuguese also attacked the indigenes because of Tupinambá alliances with the French. See Dean, With Broadax and Firebrand, p. 57.
20. For a discussion of the population sizes, environmental impact, and fate of the indigenous peoples Europeans encountered on Rio de Janeiro's coast, see Warren Dean, "Indigenous Populations of the São Paulo-Rio de Janeiro Coast Trade, Aldeamento, Slavery and Extinction," Revista de História 117 (1984): 3-26. For a map showing the distribution of indigene linguistic groups within Brazilian lands see IBGE-Pró-Memória. Mapa Etno-Htsórico de Curt Nimuendajú (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: IBGE, 1987).
21. For a discussion of the population sizes, environmental impact, and fate of the indigenous peoples Europeans encountered on Rio de Janeiro's coast, see Warren Dean, "Indigenous Populations of the São Paulo-Rio de Janeiro Coast Trade, Aldeamento, Slavery and Extinction," Revista de História 117 (1984): 3-26. For a map showing the distribution of indigene linguistic groups within Brazilian lands see IBGE-Pró-Memória. Mapa Etno-Htsórico de Curt Nimuendajú (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: IBGE, 1987).
22. The "sambaqui" peoples were producers of shell mounds on coastal camping sites.
23. Sergio Buarque de Holanda, Visao do Paraíso - Os Motivos Edénicos no Descobrimento e na Colonização do Brasil, 4th ed. (São Paulo, Brazil: Nacional, 1985). studies the early Spanish and Portuguese explorers' "quest for paradise" in the Americas. Frederick Turner, Beyond Geography: The Western Spirit against the Wilderness (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1985), contrasts indigene and European concepts of the natural landscape and the ensuing conflicts between the two groups. Turner's account is generally valid for the interactions between indigenes and the Portuguese in Brazil. See also Darcy Ribeiro, The Americas and Civilization (New York: Dutton, 1971), for evaluations of differences between Europeans and early indigenes.
24. Sergio Buarque de Holanda, Visao do Paraíso - Os Motivos Edénicos no Descobrimento e na Colonização do Brasil, 4th ed. (São Paulo, Brazil: Nacional, 1985). studies the early Spanish and Portuguese explorers' "quest for paradise" in the Americas. Frederick Turner, Beyond Geography: The Western Spirit against the Wilderness (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1985), contrasts indigene and European concepts of the natural landscape and the ensuing conflicts between the two groups. Turner's account is generally valid for the interactions between indigenes and the Portuguese in Brazil. See also Darcy Ribeiro, The Americas and Civilization (New York: Dutton, 1971), for evaluations of differences between Europeans and early indigenes.
25. Sergio Buarque de Holanda, Visao do Paraíso - Os Motivos Edénicos no Descobrimento e na Colonização do Brasil, 4th ed. (São Paulo, Brazil: Nacional, 1985). studies the early Spanish and Portuguese explorers' "quest for paradise" in the Americas. Frederick Turner, Beyond Geography: The Western Spirit against the Wilderness (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1985), contrasts indigene and European concepts of the natural landscape and the ensuing conflicts between the two groups. Turner's account is generally valid for the interactions between indigenes and the Portuguese in Brazil. See also Darcy Ribeiro, The Americas and Civilization (New York: Dutton, 1971), for evaluations of differences between Europeans and early indigenes.
26. Raymundo Ottoni de Castro Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Centra de Conservação da Natureza, 1966); Raymundo Ottoni de Castro Maia, Floresta da Tijuca (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Editoda Bloch, 1967), p. 17; IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo. The Austrian naturalists Johann Baptist von Spix and Karl Friedrich Philipp von Martins, Travels in Brazil, in the years 1817-1820, 2 vols. (London, England: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green, 1824), and Charles Darwin, The Voyage of the Beagle (New York: Doubleday and American Museum of Natural History, 1962), during their travels in 1817 and 1831, reported a patchy landscape of farms, pastures, second growth, and relatively undisturbed forests in the immediate vicinities of Rio. Darwin thought that his hikes up to nearby Corcovado peak were adventurous enough to be included in his classic narrative of hiking "wild" landscapes around the globe.
27. Raymundo Ottoni de Castro Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Centra de Conservação da Natureza, 1966); Raymundo Ottoni de Castro Maia, Floresta da Tijuca (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Editoda Bloch, 1967), p. 17; IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo. The Austrian naturalists Johann Baptist von Spix and Karl Friedrich Philipp von Martins, Travels in Brazil, in the years 1817-1820, 2 vols. (London, England: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green, 1824), and Charles Darwin, The Voyage of the Beagle (New York: Doubleday and American Museum of Natural History, 1962), during their travels in 1817 and 1831, reported a patchy landscape of farms, pastures, second growth, and relatively undisturbed forests in the immediate vicinities of Rio. Darwin thought that his hikes up to nearby Corcovado peak were adventurous enough to be included in his classic narrative of hiking "wild" landscapes around the globe.
28. Raymundo Ottoni de Castro Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Centra de Conservação da Natureza, 1966); Raymundo Ottoni de Castro Maia, Floresta da Tijuca (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Editoda Bloch, 1967), p. 17; IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo. The Austrian naturalists Johann Baptist von Spix and Karl Friedrich Philipp von Martins, Travels in Brazil, in the years 1817-1820, 2 vols. (London, England: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green, 1824), and Charles Darwin, The Voyage of the Beagle (New York: Doubleday and American Museum of Natural History, 1962), during their travels in 1817 and 1831, reported a patchy landscape of farms, pastures, second growth, and relatively undisturbed forests in the immediate vicinities of Rio. Darwin thought that his hikes up to nearby Corcovado peak were adventurous enough to be included in his classic narrative of hiking "wild" landscapes around the globe.
29. Raymundo Ottoni de Castro Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Centra de Conservação da Natureza, 1966); Raymundo Ottoni de Castro Maia, Floresta da Tijuca (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Editoda Bloch, 1967), p. 17; IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo. The Austrian naturalists Johann Baptist von Spix and Karl Friedrich Philipp von Martins, Travels in Brazil, in the years 1817-1820, 2 vols. (London, England: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green, 1824), and Charles Darwin, The Voyage of the Beagle (New York: Doubleday and American Museum of Natural History, 1962), during their travels in 1817 and 1831, reported a patchy landscape of farms, pastures, second growth, and relatively undisturbed forests in the immediate vicinities of Rio. Darwin thought that his hikes up to nearby Corcovado peak were adventurous enough to be included in his classic narrative of hiking "wild" landscapes around the globe.
30. Raymundo Ottoni de Castro Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Centra de Conservação da Natureza, 1966); Raymundo Ottoni de Castro Maia, Floresta da Tijuca (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Editoda Bloch, 1967), p. 17; IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo. The Austrian naturalists Johann Baptist von Spix and Karl Friedrich Philipp von Martins, Travels in Brazil, in the years 1817-1820, 2 vols. (London, England: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green, 1824), and Charles Darwin, The Voyage of the Beagle (New York: Doubleday and American Museum of Natural History, 1962), during their travels in 1817 and 1831, reported a patchy landscape of farms, pastures, second growth, and relatively undisturbed forests in the immediate vicinities of Rio. Darwin thought that his hikes up to nearby Corcovado peak were adventurous enough to be included in his classic narrative of hiking "wild" landscapes around the globe.
31. Coastal mangroves are called "manguezais" and coastal scrub is "restinga."
32. Instituto de Planejamento do Rio de Janeiro (hereafter IPLAN-Rio), Arcos da Carioca 1755-1988, 3d ed. (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: IPLAN-Rio, 1989), contains short text and illustrations depicting the dimensions of the Arcos da Lapa aqueduct and the changes it introduced into Rio's original natural setting. See also Maurício de Almeida Abreu, "A Cidade, a montanha e a floresta," in Abreu, Natureza e Sociedade, pp. 54-103, for details about the aqueduct, including a contemporary map of the structure and its diversion channel.
33. Instituto de Planejamento do Rio de Janeiro (hereafter IPLAN-Rio), Arcos da Carioca 1755-1988, 3d ed. (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: IPLAN-Rio, 1989), contains short text and illustrations depicting the dimensions of the Arcos da Lapa aqueduct and the changes it introduced into Rio's original natural setting. See also Maurício de Almeida Abreu, "A Cidade, a montanha e a floresta," in Abreu, Natureza e Sociedade, pp. 54-103, for details about the aqueduct, including a contemporary map of the structure and its diversion channel.
34. IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, p. 39, describes the geological history of the Rio de Janeiro area and mentions chroniclers who recorded the failure of drinking wells. See also Ana L. Coelho Netto, "O Geoecosistema da Floresta da Tijuca," in Abreu, Natureza e Sociedade, pp. 104-41. Gilberto Freyre, The Mansions and the Shanties (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1963), notes the social importance of water fountains in all major cities in colonial Brazil; Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 20, mentions the constant brawls between Black slaves in Rio's water fountain lines, specially during droughts. For appraisals of the Atlantic tropical forests of southeastern Brazil, of which Rio de Janeiro's forests were a part, see Scheiner, Ocupação Humana," p. 14; Bruno, História do Brasil, pp. 43, 68-69; Warren Dean, "Deforestation in southeastern Brazil," Global Deforestation and the Nineteenth Century Economy, ed. Richard Tucker and John F. Richards (Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1983), pp. 50-67; and Warren Dean, "Forest Conservation in Southeastern Brazil, 1900 to 1955," Environmental Review, 9, no. 1 (Spring 1985): 54-69. Spix and Martius, Travels in Brazil, 1; chap. 3, noticed the importance of waterworks and public fountains as soon as they disembarked from the boat that brought them from Europe to Rio.
35. IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, p. 39, describes the geological history of the Rio de Janeiro area and mentions chroniclers who recorded the failure of drinking wells. See also Ana L. Coelho Netto, "O Geoecosistema da Floresta da Tijuca," in Abreu, Natureza e Sociedade, pp. 104-41. Gilberto Freyre, The Mansions and the Shanties (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1963), notes the social importance of water fountains in all major cities in colonial Brazil; Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 20, mentions the constant brawls between Black slaves in Rio's water fountain lines, specially during droughts. For appraisals of the Atlantic tropical forests of southeastern Brazil, of which Rio de Janeiro's forests were a part, see Scheiner, Ocupação Humana," p. 14; Bruno, História do Brasil, pp. 43, 68-69; Warren Dean, "Deforestation in southeastern Brazil," Global Deforestation and the Nineteenth Century Economy, ed. Richard Tucker and John F. Richards (Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1983), pp. 50-67; and Warren Dean, "Forest Conservation in Southeastern Brazil, 1900 to 1955," Environmental Review, 9, no. 1 (Spring 1985): 54-69. Spix and Martius, Travels in Brazil, 1; chap. 3, noticed the importance of waterworks and public fountains as soon as they disembarked from the boat that brought them from Europe to Rio.
36. IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, p. 39, describes the geological history of the Rio de Janeiro area and mentions chroniclers who recorded the failure of drinking wells. See also Ana L. Coelho Netto, "O Geoecosistema da Floresta da Tijuca," in Abreu, Natureza e Sociedade, pp. 104-41. Gilberto Freyre, The Mansions and the Shanties (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1963), notes the social importance of water fountains in all major cities in colonial Brazil; Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 20, mentions the constant brawls between Black slaves in Rio's water fountain lines, specially during droughts. For appraisals of the Atlantic tropical forests of southeastern Brazil, of which Rio de Janeiro's forests were a part, see Scheiner, Ocupação Humana," p. 14; Bruno, História do Brasil, pp. 43, 68-69; Warren Dean, "Deforestation in southeastern Brazil," Global Deforestation and the Nineteenth Century Economy, ed. Richard Tucker and John F. Richards (Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1983), pp. 50-67; and Warren Dean, "Forest Conservation in Southeastern Brazil, 1900 to 1955," Environmental Review, 9, no. 1 (Spring 1985): 54-69. Spix and Martius, Travels in Brazil, 1; chap. 3, noticed the importance of waterworks and public fountains as soon as they disembarked from the boat that brought them from Europe to Rio.
37. IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, p. 39, describes the geological history of the Rio de Janeiro area and mentions chroniclers who recorded the failure of drinking wells. See also Ana L. Coelho Netto, "O Geoecosistema da Floresta da Tijuca," in Abreu, Natureza e Sociedade, pp. 104-41. Gilberto Freyre, The Mansions and the Shanties (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1963), notes the social importance of water fountains in all major cities in colonial Brazil; Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 20, mentions the constant brawls between Black slaves in Rio's water fountain lines, specially during droughts. For appraisals of the Atlantic tropical forests of southeastern Brazil, of which Rio de Janeiro's forests were a part, see Scheiner, Ocupação Humana," p. 14; Bruno, História do Brasil, pp. 43, 68-69; Warren Dean, "Deforestation in southeastern Brazil," Global Deforestation and the Nineteenth Century Economy, ed. Richard Tucker and John F. Richards (Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1983), pp. 50-67; and Warren Dean, "Forest Conservation in Southeastern Brazil, 1900 to 1955," Environmental Review, 9, no. 1 (Spring 1985): 54-69. Spix and Martius, Travels in Brazil, 1; chap. 3, noticed the importance of waterworks and public fountains as soon as they disembarked from the boat that brought them from Europe to Rio.
38. IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, p. 39, describes the geological history of the Rio de Janeiro area and mentions chroniclers who recorded the failure of drinking wells. See also Ana L. Coelho Netto, "O Geoecosistema da Floresta da Tijuca," in Abreu, Natureza e Sociedade, pp. 104-41. Gilberto Freyre, The Mansions and the Shanties (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1963), notes the social importance of water fountains in all major cities in colonial Brazil; Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 20, mentions the constant brawls between Black slaves in Rio's water fountain lines, specially during droughts. For appraisals of the Atlantic tropical forests of southeastern Brazil, of which Rio de Janeiro's forests were a part, see Scheiner, Ocupação Humana," p. 14; Bruno, História do Brasil, pp. 43, 68-69; Warren Dean, "Deforestation in southeastern Brazil," Global Deforestation and the Nineteenth Century Economy, ed. Richard Tucker and John F. Richards (Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1983), pp. 50-67; and Warren Dean, "Forest Conservation in Southeastern Brazil, 1900 to 1955," Environmental Review, 9, no. 1 (Spring 1985): 54-69. Spix and Martius, Travels in Brazil, 1; chap. 3, noticed the importance of waterworks and public fountains as soon as they disembarked from the boat that brought them from Europe to Rio.
39. IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, p. 39, describes the geological history of the Rio de Janeiro area and mentions chroniclers who recorded the failure of drinking wells. See also Ana L. Coelho Netto, "O Geoecosistema da Floresta da Tijuca," in Abreu, Natureza e Sociedade, pp. 104-41. Gilberto Freyre, The Mansions and the Shanties (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1963), notes the social importance of water fountains in all major cities in colonial Brazil; Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 20, mentions the constant brawls between Black slaves in Rio's water fountain lines, specially during droughts. For appraisals of the Atlantic tropical forests of southeastern Brazil, of which Rio de Janeiro's forests were a part, see Scheiner, Ocupação Humana," p. 14; Bruno, História do Brasil, pp. 43, 68-69; Warren Dean, "Deforestation in southeastern Brazil," Global Deforestation and the Nineteenth Century Economy, ed. Richard Tucker and John F. Richards (Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1983), pp. 50-67; and Warren Dean, "Forest Conservation in Southeastern Brazil, 1900 to 1955," Environmental Review, 9, no. 1 (Spring 1985): 54-69. Spix and Martius, Travels in Brazil, 1; chap. 3, noticed the importance of waterworks and public fountains as soon as they disembarked from the boat that brought them from Europe to Rio.
40. IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, p. 39, describes the geological history of the Rio de Janeiro area and mentions chroniclers who recorded the failure of drinking wells. See also Ana L. Coelho Netto, "O Geoecosistema da Floresta da Tijuca," in Abreu, Natureza e Sociedade, pp. 104-41. Gilberto Freyre, The Mansions and the Shanties (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1963), notes the social importance of water fountains in all major cities in colonial Brazil; Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 20, mentions the constant brawls between Black slaves in Rio's water fountain lines, specially during droughts. For appraisals of the Atlantic tropical forests of southeastern Brazil, of which Rio de Janeiro's forests were a part, see Scheiner, Ocupação Humana," p. 14; Bruno, História do Brasil, pp. 43, 68-69; Warren Dean, "Deforestation in southeastern Brazil," Global Deforestation and the Nineteenth Century Economy, ed. Richard Tucker and John F. Richards (Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1983), pp. 50-67; and Warren Dean, "Forest Conservation in Southeastern Brazil, 1900 to 1955," Environmental Review, 9, no. 1 (Spring 1985): 54-69. Spix and Martius, Travels in Brazil, 1; chap. 3, noticed the importance of waterworks and public fountains as soon as they disembarked from the boat that brought them from Europe to Rio.
41. IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, p. 39, describes the geological history of the Rio de Janeiro area and mentions chroniclers who recorded the failure of drinking wells. See also Ana L. Coelho Netto, "O Geoecosistema da Floresta da Tijuca," in Abreu, Natureza e Sociedade, pp. 104-41. Gilberto Freyre, The Mansions and the Shanties (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1963), notes the social importance of water fountains in all major cities in colonial Brazil; Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 20, mentions the constant brawls between Black slaves in Rio's water fountain lines, specially during droughts. For appraisals of the Atlantic tropical forests of southeastern Brazil, of which Rio de Janeiro's forests were a part, see Scheiner, Ocupação Humana," p. 14; Bruno, História do Brasil, pp. 43, 68-69; Warren Dean, "Deforestation in southeastern Brazil," Global Deforestation and the Nineteenth Century Economy, ed. Richard Tucker and John F. Richards (Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1983), pp. 50-67; and Warren Dean, "Forest Conservation in Southeastern Brazil, 1900 to 1955," Environmental Review, 9, no. 1 (Spring 1985): 54-69. Spix and Martius, Travels in Brazil, 1; chap. 3, noticed the importance of waterworks and public fountains as soon as they disembarked from the boat that brought them from Europe to Rio.
42. IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, p. 39, describes the geological history of the Rio de Janeiro area and mentions chroniclers who recorded the failure of drinking wells. See also Ana L. Coelho Netto, "O Geoecosistema da Floresta da Tijuca," in Abreu, Natureza e Sociedade, pp. 104-41. Gilberto Freyre, The Mansions and the Shanties (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1963), notes the social importance of water fountains in all major cities in colonial Brazil; Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 20, mentions the constant brawls between Black slaves in Rio's water fountain lines, specially during droughts. For appraisals of the Atlantic tropical forests of southeastern Brazil, of which Rio de Janeiro's forests were a part, see Scheiner, Ocupação Humana," p. 14; Bruno, História do Brasil, pp. 43, 68-69; Warren Dean, "Deforestation in southeastern Brazil," Global Deforestation and the Nineteenth Century Economy, ed. Richard Tucker and John F. Richards (Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1983), pp. 50-67; and Warren Dean, "Forest Conservation in Southeastern Brazil, 1900 to 1955," Environmental Review, 9, no. 1 (Spring 1985): 54-69. Spix and Martius, Travels in Brazil, 1; chap. 3, noticed the importance of waterworks and public fountains as soon as they disembarked from the boat that brought them from Europe to Rio.
43. IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, summarizes land uses in the Rio de Janeiro city area. See also Dean, With Broadax and Firebrand, pp. 20-143. Gilberto Freyre, Nordeste, 5th ed. (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: José Olympic; Recife, Fundação do Patrimônio Histórico e Artístico de Pernambuco, 1985), provides an environmental history of northeastern sugarcane plantations, outlining typical Portuguese land use practices in Brazil and their impacts on the Atlantic forest's flora, fauna, soils and waters.
44. IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, summarizes land uses in the Rio de Janeiro city area. See also Dean, With Broadax and Firebrand, pp. 20-143. Gilberto Freyre, Nordeste, 5th ed. (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: José Olympic; Recife, Fundação do Patrimônio Histórico e Artístico de Pernambuco, 1985), provides an environmental history of northeastern sugarcane plantations, outlining typical Portuguese land use practices in Brazil and their impacts on the Atlantic forest's flora, fauna, soils and waters.
45. IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, summarizes land uses in the Rio de Janeiro city area. See also Dean, With Broadax and Firebrand, pp. 20-143. Gilberto Freyre, Nordeste, 5th ed. (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: José Olympic; Recife, Fundação do Patrimônio Histórico e Artístico de Pernambuco, 1985), provides an environmental history of northeastern sugarcane plantations, outlining typical Portuguese land use practices in Brazil and their impacts on the Atlantic forest's flora, fauna, soils and waters.
46. Scheiner, "Ocupação Humana," pp. 8, 14; IPLAN-Rio, Arcos da Carioca - 1755-1988.
47. Scheiner, "Ocupação Humana," pp. 8, 14; IPLAN-Rio, Arcos da Carioca - 1755-1988.
48. Dean, With Broadax and Firebrand, pp. 91-116, examines the environmental impacts of mining both in Rio and in the mining districts. Caio Prado Jr., The Colonial Background of Modern Brazil (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1967), provides an economic history of colonial Brazil, emphasizing the resource base and different social structures engendered by regional economic cycles.
49. Dean, With Broadax and Firebrand, pp. 91-116, examines the environmental impacts of mining both in Rio and in the mining districts. Caio Prado Jr., The Colonial Background of Modern Brazil (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1967), provides an economic history of colonial Brazil, emphasizing the resource base and different social structures engendered by regional economic cycles.
50. In this classification I was inspired by Alfred W. Crosby, Biological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900 (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1986), particularly by his vivid demonstration of the advantages enjoyed by an "extended family" of European colonizers in the New World, including humans, plants, animals, and diseases.
51. Celso Furtado, Economic Development of Latin America (Cambridge, England: Belinger, 1974), describes coffee's economic importance and geographical wanderings in southeastern Brazil through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries; Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 14. and IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, concentrate on the inception of coffee farms in the Rio de Janeiro area. Stanley J. Stein, Vassouras: A Brazilian Coffee County. 1850-1900 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1957), provides an historical reconstruction of the boom and bust cycle typical of the Rio de Janeiro coffee economy. Larissa V. Brown, "Urban Growth. Economic Expansion, and Deforestation in Late Colonial Rio de Janeiro," Changing Tropical Forests: Historical Perspectives on Today's Challenges in Central & South America, ed. Harold K. Steen and Richard P. Tucker (Durham, North Carolina: Forest History Society, 1992), records the commerce between Rio and its hinterland. For the workings, impacts, and importance of coffee plantations in a mid western Brazil (São Paulo), see Warren Dean, Rio Claro: A Brazilian Plantation System (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1976).
52. Celso Furtado, Economic Development of Latin America (Cambridge, England: Belinger, 1974), describes coffee's economic importance and geographical wanderings in southeastern Brazil through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries; Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 14. and IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, concentrate on the inception of coffee farms in the Rio de Janeiro area. Stanley J. Stein, Vassouras: A Brazilian Coffee County. 1850-1900 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1957), provides an historical reconstruction of the boom and bust cycle typical of the Rio de Janeiro coffee economy. Larissa V. Brown, "Urban Growth. Economic Expansion, and Deforestation in Late Colonial Rio de Janeiro," Changing Tropical Forests: Historical Perspectives on Today's Challenges in Central & South America, ed. Harold K. Steen and Richard P. Tucker (Durham, North Carolina: Forest History Society, 1992), records the commerce between Rio and its hinterland. For the workings, impacts, and importance of coffee plantations in a mid western Brazil (São Paulo), see Warren Dean, Rio Claro: A Brazilian Plantation System (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1976).
53. Celso Furtado, Economic Development of Latin America (Cambridge, England: Belinger, 1974), describes coffee's economic importance and geographical wanderings in southeastern Brazil through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries; Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 14. and IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, concentrate on the inception of coffee farms in the Rio de Janeiro area. Stanley J. Stein, Vassouras: A Brazilian Coffee County. 1850-1900 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1957), provides an historical reconstruction of the boom and bust cycle typical of the Rio de Janeiro coffee economy. Larissa V. Brown, "Urban Growth. Economic Expansion, and Deforestation in Late Colonial Rio de Janeiro," Changing Tropical Forests: Historical Perspectives on Today's Challenges in Central & South America, ed. Harold K. Steen and Richard P. Tucker (Durham, North Carolina: Forest History Society, 1992), records the commerce between Rio and its hinterland. For the workings, impacts, and importance of coffee plantations in a mid western Brazil (São Paulo), see Warren Dean, Rio Claro: A Brazilian Plantation System (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1976).
54. Celso Furtado, Economic Development of Latin America (Cambridge, England: Belinger, 1974), describes coffee's economic importance and geographical wanderings in southeastern Brazil through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries; Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 14. and IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, concentrate on the inception of coffee farms in the Rio de Janeiro area. Stanley J. Stein, Vassouras: A Brazilian Coffee County. 1850-1900 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1957), provides an historical reconstruction of the boom and bust cycle typical of the Rio de Janeiro coffee economy. Larissa V. Brown, "Urban Growth. Economic Expansion, and Deforestation in Late Colonial Rio de Janeiro," Changing Tropical Forests: Historical Perspectives on Today's Challenges in Central & South America, ed. Harold K. Steen and Richard P. Tucker (Durham, North Carolina: Forest History Society, 1992), records the commerce between Rio and its hinterland. For the workings, impacts, and importance of coffee plantations in a mid western Brazil (São Paulo), see Warren Dean, Rio Claro: A Brazilian Plantation System (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1976).
55. Celso Furtado, Economic Development of Latin America (Cambridge, England: Belinger, 1974), describes coffee's economic importance and geographical wanderings in southeastern Brazil through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries; Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 14. and IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, concentrate on the inception of coffee farms in the Rio de Janeiro area. Stanley J. Stein, Vassouras: A Brazilian Coffee County. 1850-1900 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1957), provides an historical reconstruction of the boom and bust cycle typical of the Rio de Janeiro coffee economy. Larissa V. Brown, "Urban Growth. Economic Expansion, and Deforestation in Late Colonial Rio de Janeiro," Changing Tropical Forests: Historical Perspectives on Today's Challenges in Central & South America, ed. Harold K. Steen and Richard P. Tucker (Durham, North Carolina: Forest History Society, 1992), records the commerce between Rio and its hinterland. For the workings, impacts, and importance of coffee plantations in a mid western Brazil (São Paulo), see Warren Dean, Rio Claro: A Brazilian Plantation System (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1976).
56. Celso Furtado, Economic Development of Latin America (Cambridge, England: Belinger, 1974), describes coffee's economic importance and geographical wanderings in southeastern Brazil through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries; Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 14. and IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, concentrate on the inception of coffee farms in the Rio de Janeiro area. Stanley J. Stein, Vassouras: A Brazilian Coffee County. 1850-1900 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1957), provides an historical reconstruction of the boom and bust cycle typical of the Rio de Janeiro coffee economy. Larissa V. Brown, "Urban Growth. Economic Expansion, and Deforestation in Late Colonial Rio de Janeiro," Changing Tropical Forests: Historical Perspectives on Today's Challenges in Central & South America, ed. Harold K. Steen and Richard P. Tucker (Durham, North Carolina: Forest History Society, 1992), records the commerce between Rio and its hinterland. For the workings, impacts, and importance of coffee plantations in a mid western Brazil (São Paulo), see Warren Dean, Rio Claro: A Brazilian Plantation System (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1976).
57. IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, pp. 40-41; Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, pp. 15-17; Maia, Floresta da Tijuea, pp. 19-22; Bruno, História do Brasil.
58. IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, pp. 40-41; Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, pp. 15-17; Maia, Floresta da Tijuea, pp. 19-22; Bruno, História do Brasil.
59. IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, pp. 40-41; Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, pp. 15-17; Maia, Floresta da Tijuea, pp. 19-22; Bruno, História do Brasil.
60. IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, pp. 40-41; Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, pp. 15-17; Maia, Floresta da Tijuea, pp. 19-22; Bruno, História do Brasil.
61. Wild Coffea arabica grew naturally under the partial shading of taller trees.
62. Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, pp. 16-17. assesses the impact of the 1808 Portuguese influx on the Tijuca Ridge area.
63. Maia, Floresta da Tijuca, p. 18, discusses Tijuca Ridge's role as summer refuge, which was superseded in the 1850s by the custom-built "summer capital," Petrópolis.
64. Maia, Floresta da Tijuca, p. 16.
65. Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, pp. 12, 13; author's computations.
66. Drummond, National Parks in Brazil, chap. 6, traces the expansion and environmental impacts of coffee in the province - later state-of Rio de Janeiro until the end of the nineteenth century. See also Bruno. História do Brasil; and Stein, Vassouras.
67. Drummond, National Parks in Brazil, chap. 6, traces the expansion and environmental impacts of coffee in the province - later state-of Rio de Janeiro until the end of the nineteenth century. See also Bruno. História do Brasil; and Stein, Vassouras.
68. Drummond, National Parks in Brazil, chap. 6, traces the expansion and environmental impacts of coffee in the province - later state-of Rio de Janeiro until the end of the nineteenth century. See also Bruno. História do Brasil; and Stein, Vassouras.
69. Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 51; IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, pp. 42-43.
70. Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 51; IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, pp. 42-43.
71. IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, p. 41.
72. Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, pp. 23-24; Scheiner, "Ocupação Humana," p. 14.
73. Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, pp. 23-24; Scheiner, "Ocupação Humana," p. 14.
74. Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 21.
75. For a detailed list of properties purchased by the government see Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, pp. 23-24.
76. Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 22.
77. Raymond Maia calls the instructions the "founding document" of the Tijuca Forest. See Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, pp. 28-29. See also Scheiner, "Ocupação Humana."
78. Raymond Maia calls the instructions the "founding document" of the Tijuca Forest. See Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, pp. 28-29. See also Scheiner, "Ocupação Humana."
79. Manuel Gomes Archer lived 1821-1905.
80. Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, pp. 28-29; Scheiner. "Ocupação Humana;" and Carlos Manes Bandeira et al, Pesquias e Escavaçon Arqueológicas em Sítiot Históricos do Parque Nacional da Tijuca e Arredores (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Fundação Brasileira de Conservação da Natureza, 1984). Bandeira is the senior researcher for a twenty-five-year archaeological project based in the Tijuca Park area. Paulo Bastos César, a Brazilian historian, recently published a brief biographical sketch of Archer and described his reforestation efforts. See IPLAN-Rio, A Floresta da Tijuca e a Cidade do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Nova Frontiera, 1992), pp. 3-27.
81. Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, pp. 28-29; Scheiner. "Ocupação Humana;" and Carlos Manes Bandeira et al, Pesquias e Escavaçon Arqueológicas em Sítiot Históricos do Parque Nacional da Tijuca e Arredores (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Fundação Brasileira de Conservação da Natureza, 1984). Bandeira is the senior researcher for a twenty-five-year archaeological project based in the Tijuca Park area. Paulo Bastos César, a Brazilian historian, recently published a brief biographical sketch of Archer and described his reforestation efforts. See IPLAN-Rio, A Floresta da Tijuca e a Cidade do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Nova Frontiera, 1992), pp. 3-27.
82. Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, pp. 28-29; Scheiner. "Ocupação Humana;" and Carlos Manes Bandeira et al, Pesquias e Escavaçon Arqueológicas em Sítiot Históricos do Parque Nacional da Tijuca e Arredores (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Fundação Brasileira de Conservação da Natureza, 1984). Bandeira is the senior researcher for a twenty-five-year archaeological project based in the Tijuca Park area. Paulo Bastos César, a Brazilian historian, recently published a brief biographical sketch of Archer and described his reforestation efforts. See IPLAN-Rio, A Floresta da Tijuca e a Cidade do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Nova Frontiera, 1992), pp. 3-27.
83. Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, pp. 28-29; Scheiner. "Ocupação Humana;" and Carlos Manes Bandeira et al, Pesquias e Escavaçon Arqueológicas em Sítiot Históricos do Parque Nacional da Tijuca e Arredores (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Fundação Brasileira de Conservação da Natureza, 1984). Bandeira is the senior researcher for a twenty-five-year archaeological project based in the Tijuca Park area. Paulo Bastos César, a Brazilian historian, recently published a brief biographical sketch of Archer and described his reforestation efforts. See IPLAN-Rio, A Floresta da Tijuca e a Cidade do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Nova Frontiera, 1992), pp. 3-27.
84. Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 42; IPLAN-Rio, A Floresta da Tijuca, pp. 11-13.
85. Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 42; IPLAN-Rio, A Floresta da Tijuca, pp. 11-13.
86. For details about Archer's planting methods, see Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, and Scheiner, "Ocupação Humana."
87. For details about Archer's planting methods, see Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, and Scheiner, "Ocupação Humana."
88. Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, pp. 33-35; IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, p. 9; Scheiner, "Ocupação Humana," p. 15.
89. Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, pp. 33-35; IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, p. 9; Scheiner, "Ocupação Humana," p. 15.
90. Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, pp. 33-35; IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, p. 9; Scheiner, "Ocupação Humana," p. 15.
91. Archer himself, besides his activities in the field, kept a diary and very detailed annual reports. He made day-trips to downtown Rio for administrative matters at the Department of Agriculture and occasionally visited his farm in distant Guaratiba.
92. Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 42.
93. Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 42.
94. IBGE, Anuário Estatistico 1990, table 1.
95. Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 42; IPLAN-Rio, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 20.
96. Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 42; IPLAN-Rio, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 20.
97. Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, pp. 40-41, expands on Archer's "vision" of forestry. Archer does not clearly identify his sources of information for German forestry practices and other resource conservation issues. Very likely he knew about German public forests through his own reading and via well-travelled members of the Imperial court 53. For details regarding Escragnolle's tenure and his emphasis on making a public park out of the Tijuca Forest, see Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, pp. 46-50 .
98. Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, pp. 40-41, expands on Archer's "vision" of forestry. Archer does not clearly identify his sources of information for German forestry practices and other resource conservation issues. Very likely he knew about German public forests through his own reading and via well-travelled members of the Imperial court 53. For details regarding Escragnolle's tenure and his emphasis on making a public park out of the Tijuca Forest, see Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, pp. 46-50 .
99. Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 50; author's computations.
100. Maia, A Floresta da Tijuca, p. 51.
101. Rio de Janeiro's population by 1890 had climbed to 522,000, almost doubling since 1872.
102. For lack of space, I will not discuss the Tijuca Forest situation after 1889. Drummond, National Parks in Brazil, chap. 10, provides a history from that point for both the Tijuca Forest and Tijuca National Park.
103. IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo, pp. 32, 44; author's observations.
104. IBDF-FBCN, Piano de Manejo, pp. 33-37, 39.
105. The following texts have partial checklists of the Tijuca National Park flora: IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo; Carlos César Landini V. de Mattos et al, "Aspectos do Clima e da Flora do Parque Nacional da Tijuca," Brasil Florestal 7, no. 25 (January-March 1976): 3-12; Nilo Santos, "Plantas Existentes no Parque Nacional da Tijuca," Brasil Florestal 7 no. 26 (April-June 1976): 54-68.
106. The following texts have partial checklists of the Tijuca National Park flora: IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo; Carlos César Landini V. de Mattos et al, "Aspectos do Clima e da Flora do Parque Nacional da Tijuca," Brasil Florestal 7, no. 25 (January-March 1976): 3-12; Nilo Santos, "Plantas Existentes no Parque Nacional da Tijuca," Brasil Florestal 7 no. 26 (April-June 1976): 54-68.
107. The following texts have partial checklists of the Tijuca National Park flora: IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo; Carlos César Landini V. de Mattos et al, "Aspectos do Clima e da Flora do Parque Nacional da Tijuca," Brasil Florestal 7, no. 25 (January-March 1976): 3-12; Nilo Santos, "Plantas Existentes no Parque Nacional da Tijuca," Brasil Florestal 7 no. 26 (April-June 1976): 54-68.
108. Scheiner, "Ocupação Humana," p. 19, also mentions the abundance of materials for researchers. The total of 175 square kilometers is the author's estimate.
109. IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo; Helmut Sick, Aves da Cidade do Rio de Janeiro - Lista (Checklist) - 410 Species (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Fundação Brasileira de Conservação da Natureza, 1983); Maria Tereza Jorge Padua and Antônio Audi, "Espécies de Fauna Silvestre Ameaçadas de Extinção - Sua Ocorrência e Proteção nos Parques Nacionais e nas Reservas Biológicas," Boletim FBCN 19 (1984): 49-80; author's observations.
110. IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo; Helmut Sick, Aves da Cidade do Rio de Janeiro - Lista (Checklist) - 410 Species (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Fundação Brasileira de Conservação da Natureza, 1983); Maria Tereza Jorge Padua and Antônio Audi, "Espécies de Fauna Silvestre Ameaçadas de Extinção - Sua Ocorrência e Proteção nos Parques Nacionais e nas Reservas Biológicas," Boletim FBCN 19 (1984): 49-80; author's observations.
111. IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo; Helmut Sick, Aves da Cidade do Rio de Janeiro - Lista (Checklist) - 410 Species (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Fundação Brasileira de Conservação da Natureza, 1983); Maria Tereza Jorge Padua and Antônio Audi, "Espécies de Fauna Silvestre Ameaçadas de Extinção - Sua Ocorrência e Proteção nos Parques Nacionais e nas Reservas Biológicas," Boletim FBCN 19 (1984): 49-80; author's observations.
112. The artifacts introduced over the years in the Tijuca Park and Tijuca Forest give testimony to the many different uses that humans have made of the area. Both ancient and current uses are recorded. Some of the most telling artifacts include: 1) dams, ditches, pipes, channels, reservoirs, and tanks. These represent an extensive network of artifacts once used for the city's water supply, some of them underground or hidden, others conspicuous with their complex pieces of equipment; 2) roads, streets, gates, streetcar rails, and a railroad and railroad stations, comprising an extensive network of routes for getting into and across the park in vehicles; some roads have been intensively used recently for jogging, walking, and bicycling; 3) trails for hikers, campers, horse riders, and off-road vehicles; 4) transmission lines and towers that cross the park and lead to several conversion stations in the lower parts of the hills; 5) more than a dozen radio, telephone, and television transmitters and antennae, conspicuously located on one of the park's highest ridges; 6) forty buildings, including a chapel. Archer's and Escragnolle's houses, restaurants, administration offices, and sheds; 7) plazas, belvederes, lawns, walkways, fields, playgrounds, lakes, and picnic areas; 8) an unofficial visitors center, with bars, a restaurant, and souvenir stands; 9) a hotel with forty-two apartments, plazas, parking lots, and a railroad station; 10) a statue of Christ the Redeemer, about twenty-five meters tall, surrounded by extensive belvederes, stairways, souvenir stands, a restaurant, bars, parking lots, restrooms, a powerful illumination system and ranger residences; 11) ten private houses still occupied by their owners, scheduled for government purchase at some point; 12) a gliding platform. See IBDF-FBCN, Plano de Manejo; author's observations. Careful observers can find less-evident artifacts: old public water fountains; artificial waterfalls; old railings, benches, and lamp posts; old trails; disjointed fence posts and surviving stone markers. Small and large artifacts find their way up or down the slopes as urban rubbish: car tires, streetcar rails, decayed and unidentified pieces of metal, coins, keys, etc. Archaeologist Carlos Manes Bandeira has since 1967 conducted a project in the heart of Tijuca National Park. He has unearthed so many objects from the nineteenth-century coffee farms that he plans to create a "Coffee Historical Museum" in the park. See Bandeira et al, Pesquisas e Escavaçoes. Bandeira has unearthed household utensils, tools, building materials, foundations, ditches, waterworks. Bandeira, personal communication, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, May 1988; author's observations.