Patriotic violence and the state: The Moscow riots of May 1915

Kritika

Volumn 4, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 607-626

  Lohr, Eric ^a  

^a AMERICAN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 56249102321     PISSN: 1531023X     EISSN: 15385000     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/kri.2003.0043     Document Type: Review

References (71)

1. Max Weber, "Politics as a Vocation," in From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, ed. H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (New York: Oxford University Press, 1958), 78
2. One hundred million rubles was a common figure in press discussions. For example, see N. Ezhov, "Vnutrennie izvestiia: Moskovskie nastroeniia," Novoe vremia, 3 July 1915, 6
3. Zaiavlenie no. 174 in Gosudarsrvennaia Duma, Prilozhenie k stenograficheskim otchetam, no. 27, 1915, p. 2
4. Solomon Chernomordik, Put' k oktiabriu: Sbornik statei, vospominanii i dokumentov (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1923), 3: 131-33; 5: 139-42
5. See, for example, Matvei Gustavovich Fleer, Rabochee dvizhenie v gody voiny (Moscow: Voprosy truda, 1925), 20, 25
6. Istoriia Moskvy 5 (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1955), 316
7. Iurii Il'ich Kir'ianov, "'Maiskie besporiadki' 1915 g. v Moskve," Voprosy istorii, no. 12 (1994), 137-50
8. For an overview of the literature and its development, see Lewis H. Siegelbaum and Ronald Grigor Suny, "Class Backwards? In Search of the Soviet Working Class," in Making Workers Soviet: Power, Class and Identity, ed. Louis H. Siegelbaum and Ronald Grigor Suny (Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell University Press, 1994), 8-26
9. On labor violence, see Daniel R. Brower, "Labor Violence in Russia in the Late Nineteenth Century," and responses by Robert E. Johnson, Ronald Grigor Suny, and Diane Koenker, Slavic Review 41: 3 (1982), 417-53
10. For an excellent study of a remarkably similar riot, see Theodore Friedgut, "Labor Violence and Regime Brutality in Tsarist Russia: The Iuzovka Cholera Riots of 1892," Slavic Review AG: 2 (1987), 245-65
11. Joan Neuberger, Hooliganism: Crime, Culture and Power in St. Petersburg, 1900-1914 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993)
12. Hiroaki Kuromiya, "Donbass Miners in War, Revolution and Civil War," in Making Workers Soviet, ed. Siegelbaum and Suny, 138-58
13. Recent works in the pre-war period which give attention to anti-Jewish violence as a part of worker culture include: Charters Wynn, Workers, Strikes and Pogroms: The Donbass-Dnepr Bend in Late Imperial Russia, 1870-1905 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992)
14. and Robert Weinberg, The Revolution of 1905 in Odessa: Blood on the Steps (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1993)
15. Recent studies of Jewish pogroms include: John D. Klier and Shlomo Lambroza, Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992)
16. and Edward Judge, Easter in Kishinev: Anatomy of a Pogrom (New York: New York University Press, 1992)
17. Kir'ianov has published a series of studies of non-strike collective action. See his "Demonstratsii rabochikh v 1914 g.-fev. 1917 g.," in Rabochii klass kapitalisticheskoi Rossii (Moscow: Institut nauchnoi informatsii po obshchestvennym naukam RAN, 1992), 67-109
18. and "Massovye vystupleniia na pochve dorogovizny v Rossii (1914-fevral' 1917 g.)," Otechestvennaia istoriia, no. 1 (1993), 3-18
19. The issue of popular patriotic culture is addressed in Hubertus Jahn, Patriotic Culture in Russia during World War I (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995)
20. and his "Russkie rabochie, patriotism i Pervaia mirovaia voina," in Rabochie i intelligentsiia Rossii v epokhu reform i revoliutsii 1861-fevral' 1917 (St. Petersburg: RAN, 1997)
21. "Razgrom nemetskogo posol'stva," Rech', 23 July 1914, 3
22. "Manifestatsii protiv Germanii," Russkie vedomosti, 23 July 1914, 3-4
23. "Anti-German Riots: Fierce Russian Onslaught on the Embassy," The Times (London), 5 August 1915. GARF f. 270, op. 1, d. 99, 1. 38 (Petrograd gendarme administration head Popov to Dzhunkovskii, 23 July 1914)
24. Lekomtsev, "Formy bor'by," 165
25. Kuromiya, "Donbass Miners," 141
26. Shcherbina, Rabochee dvizhenie na Ukraine, 11-17
27. In the worst of the mobilization riots, in Barnaul, a hundred died as the police fought the rioters in a determined attempt to restore order. Josh Sanborn, "The Mobilization of 1914 and the Question of the Russian Nation: A Reexamination," Slavic Review 59: 2 (Summer 2000), 277
28. Hans Rogger, "Nationalism and the State: A Russian Dilemma," Comparative Studies in Society and History 4: 3 (1961-62), 253-64
29. Elise Kimerling Wirtschafter, Social Identity in Imperial Russia (DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1997), 9
30. Most famously, Petr Arkad'evich Stolypin used patriotism as a rallying theme and as a means for the regime to compete in mass politics. See Abraham Ascher, P. A. Stolypin: The Search for Stability in Late Imperial Russia (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000), 172-92
31. Josh Sanborn, "Military Reform, Moral Reform, and the End of the Old Regime," in Military and Society in Russian History, 1450-1917, ed. Marshall Poe and Eric Lohr (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2002)
32. Eric Lohr, "Enemy Alien Politics within the Russian Empire during World War I" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1999), chap. 1
33. Valentin Semenovich D'iakin, "Pervaia mirovaia voina i meropriiatiia po likvidatsii tak nazyvaemogo nemetskogo zasil'ia," in Pervaia mirovaia voina, 1914-1918, ed. A. I. Sidorov (Moscow: Nauka, 1968)
34. Kirianov, "Demonstratsii rabochikh," 69
35. "Patrioticheskie manifestatsii," Moskovskie vedomosti, 10 October 1914
36. Daniel Graf, "The Reign of the Generals: Military Government in Western Russia, 1914-1915" (Ph.D. diss., University of Nebraska, 1972)
37. Polozhenie o polevom upravlenii voisk v voennoe vremia (Petrograd: Voennaia tipografiia, 1914)
38. Eric Lohr, "The Russian Army and the Jews: Mass Deportation, Hostages, and Violence during World War I," Russian Review 60 (July 2001), 414-19
39. Michael Cherniavsky, Prologue to Revolution: Notes of A. N. Iakhontov on the Secret Meetings of the Council of Ministers, 1915 (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1967), 56-64
40. Sovet ministrov Rossiiskoi Imperii v gody pervoi mirovoi voiny: Bumagi A. N. Iakhontova (Zapisi zasedanii i perepiska) (St. Petersburg: "Dmirrii Bulanin," 1999), 163-64
41. Cherniavsky, Prologue to Revolution, 32-34, 40
42. On the deportations from Moscow, see daily lists of deportees in Moskovskie vedomosti, May-June 1915
43. Gosudarstvennaia Duma, Stenograficheskie otchety, 4th Duma, 4th session (3 August 1915), 415
44. Prilozhenie k izvestiiam Moskovskoi Gorodskoi Dumy za 1915 g., no. 15 (29 May 1915)
45. Among others, see "Miniatiury," Russkie vedomosti, 31 May 1915
46. Most recent scholarship has refuted this interpretation, arguing instead that the state quite consistently opposed pogroms. According to Michael Ochs, "in the minds of Russian officaldom, the state's monopoly on violence was sacrosanct." See Ochs, "Tsarist Officialdom and Anti-Jewish Pogroms in Poland," in Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian History, ed. Klier and Lambroza, 185
47. On the "pogrom paradigm," see Klier's article, "The Pogrom Paradigm in Russian History," in the same volume (13-38)
48. Other articles in the same volume argue along with Ochs that the government did not directly promote or organize pogroms. Another work that argues along these lines is Edward Judge, Plehve: Repression and Reform in Imperial Russia, 1902-1904 (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1983)
49. and idem, Easter in Kishinev: Anatomy of a Pogrom (New York: New York University Press, 1992)
50. K. Arsen'ev, "Na temy dnia," Vestnik Evropy (February 1916), 363-68
51. For a number of speeches addressing the issue, see the debates over the formation of a Duma commission for the "Fight against German Dominance," in Stenograficheskie otchety, Gosudarstvennaia Duma, 4th Duma, 4th session (3 August 1915)
52. "Ukhod moskovskogo gradonachal'nika," Russkie vedomosti, 2 June 1915, 2
53. Kir'ianov, "Demonstratsii rabochikh v 1914 g.-fev. 1917 g.," in Rabochii klass, 67-109
54. According to the testimony of many eyewitnesses, the rioters included unusually large numbers of women and adolescents. Drafting for military service had removed many male workers and authority figures from Moscow, and led to a massive influx of women and youth into the labor force. In fact, the proportion of women in the industrial work force rose from 27% in 1914 to 43% in 1917. Jane McDermid and Anna Hillyar, Women and Work in Russia, 1880-1930: A Study in Continuity through Change (London and New York: Longman, 1998), 144
55. Issues of military service and exemption created many tensions in the workplace, and moral-patriotic hostility over these issues could run high, especially when ethnic Germans or enemy aliens remained in positions of power over women whose husbands were fighting at the front. P. E. Liubarov, "Torgovye rabochie i sluzhashchie v gody Pervoi mirovoi voiny," in Rabochii klass kapitalisticheskoi Rossii: Sbornik obzarov, ed. Kir'ianov and V. M. Shevyrin (Moscow: INION RAN, 1992), 110-24
56. "Iz istorii rabochego dvizheniia vo vremia mirovoi voiny (Stachechnoe dvizhenie v Kostromskoi gub.)," Krasnyi arkhiv, no. 67 (1934), 5-27
57. Fleer, Rabochee dvizhenie, 207-14
58. Diane P. Koenker and William G. Rosenberg, Strikes and Revolution in Russia, 1917 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), 59
59. Gosudarstvennaia duma, Stenograficheskie otchety, 4th Duma, 4th session (3 August 1915), 415-18
60. Panikos Panayi, "Anti-German Riots in Britain during the First World War," in Racial Violence in Britain, 1840-1950, ed. Panayi (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1993), 83
61. The recent study by Donald Horowitz of 150 ethnic riots in the last century finds that riots tend to have a set of remarkably common features and "rhythms" that are quite independent of the policies of the government and police. Donald Horowitz, The Deadly Ethnic Riot (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001)
62. Horowitz, The Deadly Ethnic Riot, 74-88
63. See Theodore Friedgut, "Labor Violence and Regime Brutality in Tsarist Russia: The Iuzovka Cholera Riots of 1892," Slavic Review 46: 2 (1987), 245-65
64. Osobyi zhurnal Soveta ministrov, 7 October 1914
65. V. Rosenberg, "Fiktivnaia peredacha predpriiatii," Torgovo-promyshlennaia gazeta, no. 13 (17 January 1916)
66. Jahn, Patriotic Culture, 177
67. Horowitz, The Deadly Ethnic Riot, 148, 168
68. Historians of the February Revolution who have stressed the importance of patriotism have limited their claim to the sphere of elites, often combining their arguments for the importance of patriotism as a motive for elites with arguments that the lack of patriotic sentiment among workers and peasants explains the rapid collapse of the Provisional Government and the war effort. Thus, patriotism appears as a limited elite phenomenon, again primarily oriented toward defense of the state. See George Katkov, Russia 1917: The February Revolution (London: Longmans, 1967)
69. Richard Pipes, The Russian Revolution (New York: Vintage Books, 1990)
70. and Raymond Pearson, The Russian Moderates and the Crisis of Tsarism, 1914-1917 (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1977)
71. On the problem of unified government, focusing on the anomalous position of the monarch qua autocrat within an otherwise constitutional-ministerial system, see David McDonald, United Government and Foreign Policy in Russia, 1900-1914 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992)