Warming up to user-generated content

University of Illinois Law Review

Volumn 2008, Issue 5, 2008, Pages 1459-1548

  Lee, Edward ^a  

^a OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 55549116384     PISSN: 02769948     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (477)

1. Of the 1,889 copyright cases disposed in 2002, 77.6% were dismissed, including 42.3% by settlement. Only 22.4% of the cases (423) led to a judgment, of which only 1.5% were settled by trial. U.S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE, BUREAU OF JUSTICE STATISTICS SPECIAL REPORT, INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY THEFT, 2002, at 8 (2004) [hereinafter STATISTICS REPORT].
2. Although YouTube currently faces two major copyright lawsuits based on the allegedly infringing activity of their users, the lawsuits do not challenge the general practice of user-generated content but instead focus on verbatim copying of copyrighted works. See infra notes 201-07 and accompanying text.
3. See infra notes 348-65 and accompanying text.
4. See infra notes 240-45 and accompanying text.
5. See infra notes 314-27 and accompanying text.
6. See infra note 410 and accompanying text.
7. See infra notes 32, 123-26 and accompanying text.
8. See ALAN SCHWARTZ & ROBERT E. SCOTT, COMMERCIAL TRANSACTIONS: PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES 2 (2d ed. 1991).
9. U.C.C. § 1-103(a) (2001).
10. For example, the U.C.C. relaxes the traditional parol evidence rule to allow evidence of usage of trade and course of dealing to supplement the four corners of a written contract. U.C.C. § 2-202 (2003). It also gives sellers the right to cure, even after the time for performance, thereby facilitating informal adjustment of contract disputes. Id. § 2-508. The U.C.C. also allows parties to modify contracts without consideration, id. § 2-209(1), and gets rid of the mirror-image rule, id. § 2-207(i), so parties can form contracts by exchanging offers and acceptances that are not the same in all respects. Traditional contract law did not allow any of these considerations.
11. The New Legal Realist movement in legal scholarship has emphasized looking at the law from a "bottom up" approach with greater examination of empirical data of how things occur at the ground level. See Howard Erlanger et al., Foreword: Is It Time for a New Legal Realism?, 2005 WIS. L. REV. 335, 339-41.
12. See 17 U.S.C. §§ 108-122 (2000): Jessica Litman, Revising Copyright Law for the Information Age, 75 OR. L. REV. 19, 23 (1996) ("The current federal copyright statute (and its predecessors) were composed by representatives of copyright-related industries to govern interactions among them.").
13. 17 U.S.C. § 110(11) (Supp. V 2005).
14. See S. REP. NO. 105-190, at 45 (1998) ("This 'notice and takedown' procedure is a formalization and refinement of a cooperative process that has been employed to deal effectively with network-based copyright infringement.").
15. See S. 167, 109th Cong. (2005); Jacqueline L. Salmon, Bill Would End Separation of Church and Super Bowl, WASH. POST, Feb. 7, 2008, at A6.
16. See infra note 24 and accompanying text.
17. A nonexclusive license can be implied from the circumstances. See, e.g., I.A.E., Inc. v. Shaver, 74 F.3d 768, 776-77 (7th Cir. 1996); Effects Ass'n, Inc. v. Cohen, 908 F.2d 555, 558-59 (9th Cir. 1990).
18. Laches is an equitable defense, although the circuits are split on its application in the face of the statute of limitations in the Copyright Act. Compare Lyons P'ship v. Morris Costumes, Inc., 243 F.3d 789, 798 (4th Cir. 2001) ("Separation of powers principles thus preclude us from applying the judicially created doctrine of laches to bar a federal statutory claim that has been timely filed under an express statute of limitations."), with New Era Publ'ns Int'l v. Henry Holt & Co., 873 F.2d 576, 584-85 (2d Cir. 1989) (applying laches for two-year delay), and Chirco v. Crosswinds Cmtys., Inc., 474 F.3d 227, 233 (6th Cir. 2007) (recognizing a strong presumption against application of laches for any copyright claim brought within three-year statute of limitations). Laches can be established if (1) the copyright holder inordinately delayed filing suit even though it knew or should have known of the potential claim and (2) the delay resulted in undue prejudice to the alleged infringer. See Kling v. Hallmark Cards, Inc., 225 F.3d 1030, 1036 (9th Cir. 2000); Chirco, 474 F.3d at 234. While the statute of limitations does not start running until a copyright violation has in fact occurred, the period of delay for a laches defense can begin when the copyright holder has actual or constructive knowledge of an impending violation. Thus, laches "might in some cases obligate the [copyright holder] to investigate the defendant's plans regarding the exploitation of that copyright." Kling, 225 F.3d at 1039.
19. Under copyright law, a copyright holder may be estopped from suing for copyright infringement if (1) the copyright holder knew of the facts of defendant's infringing conduct, (2) "either intended that defendant rely on his acts or omissions or acted or failed to act in such a manner that defendant had a right to believe it was intended to rely on plaintiffs conduct," (3) the defendant was ignorant of the true facts, and (4) relied on the copyright holder's conduct to his detriment. Hampton v. Paramount Pictures Corp., 279 F.2d 100, 104 (9th Cir. 1960); see also 4 MELVILLE B. NIMMER & DAVID NIMMER, NIMMER ON COPYRIGHT § 13.07 (2007). Both informal and industry practices are often relevant to estoppel. See, e.g., Carson v. Dynegy, Inc., 344 F.3d 446, 455 (5th Cir. 2003) (copyright holder estopped from bringing a copyright infringement claim against defendant for using copyrighted worksheet because copyright holder had freely allowed fellow employees to use and modify the worksheet); Field v. Google, Inc., 412 F. Supp. 2d 1106, 1116 (D. Nev. 2006) (copyright holder estopped from suing Google for copying his work for automated cache system in search engine because author knew of Google's caching system but failed to opt out of that system as was easily available by the "industry standard" of using "no archive" metatag in the Web site's code).
20. Copyright misuse is based on the notion of "unclean hands," meaning that the copyright holder's own conduct may, in some cases, disqualify him from asserting any copyright infringement claim during the period of misuse. See Practice Mgmt. Info. Corp. v. AMA, 121 F.3d 516, 520 (9th Cir. 1997); DSC Commc'ns Corp. v. DGI Techs., Inc., 81 F.3d 597, 601 (5th Cir. 1996); Lasercomb Am., Inc. v. Reynolds, 911 F.2d 970, 977-79 (4th Cir. 1990).
21. See 17 U.S.C. § 110(S)(A) (2000).
22. The Court held that the reception of music on the radio did not constitute a public performance. See Twentieth Century Music Corp. v. Aiken, 422 U.S. 151, 162-64 (1975). By contrast, § 110(5)(A) simply exempts the reception from the public performance right, characterizing it as not an infringement. See 17 U.S.C. § 110(5)(A).
23. Aiken, 422 U.S. at 162.
24. Harper & Row Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enters., 471 U.S. 539, 550-51 (1985).
25. See Mark Lemley, Ignoring Patents, 2008 MICH. ST. L. REV. 19, 21-22.
26. Id. at 27-28.
27. See ROBERT C. ELLICKSON, ORDER WITHOUT LAW: HOW NEIGHBORS SETTLE DISPUTES 258 (1991).
28. See, e.g., Yuval Feldman & Janice Nadler, The Law and Norms of File Sharing, 43 SAN DIEGO L. REV. 577, 582 (2006).
29. Jennifer E. Rothman, The Questionable Use of Custom in Intellectual Property, 93 VA. L. REV. 1899 (2007).
30. Id. at 1967-68.
31. Id. at 1969-80.
32. See Joel Handler et al., A Roundtable on New Legal Realism, Microanalysis of Institutions, and the New Governance: Exploring Convergences and Differences, 2005 WIS. L. REV. 479, 482 n.16 (citing examples of legal scholarship and the "new legal realist" movement).
33. Cf. Christiana Ochoa, The Individual and Customary International Law Formation, 48 VA. J. INT'L L. 119, 127 (2007) (discussing the scale of custom for international law and proposing a definition of custom as a "body of practice that has become expected by a people to such a degree that it has become law"); Rothman, supra note 29, at 1900 n.1 (discussing various definitions of custom and norm).
34. Pat Schroeder & Bob Barr, Reining in Google, WASH. TIMES, Nov. 3, 2005, at A18 (emphasis added).
35. ARTHUR R. MILLER & MICHAEL H. DAVIS, INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY: PATENTS, TRADEMARKS, AND COPYRIGHT 345 (4th ed. 2007).
36. 3 WILLIAM F. PATRY, PATRY ON COPYRIGHT § 9:2, at 9-14 to 9-15 (2007); see Julie E. Cohen, The Place of the User in Copyright Law, 74 FORDHAM L. REV. 347, 353 (2005) ("Most of us [copyright scholars] readily concede that private copying is and should be infringement in the first instance, unless excused as fair use.").
37. See Sonya K. Katyal, Performance, Property, and the Slashing of Gender in Fan Fiction, 14 AM. U. J. GENDER SOC. POL'Y & L. 461, 477 (2006) ("The property theme, which has taken on greater emphasis in modern times, suggests a sort of fixed, unitary, thing-like character that remains largely static, stable, and resistant to modern change.").
38. Omar Saleem, The Physics of Fourth Amendment Privacy Rights, 32 T. MARSHALL L. REV. 147, 158 (2007) (quoting BRIAN GREENE, THE FABRIC OF THE COSMOS 8 (2004)).
39. Id. at 157.
40. Mark R. Killenbeck, The Physics of Federalism, 51 U. KAN. L. REV. 1, 50 (2002).
41. See Steven Goldberg, Albert Einstein, Esq., 93 GEO. L.J. 319, 320-21 (2004).
42. Id.
43. See Felix S. Cohen, Field Theory and Judicial Logic, 59 YALE. L.J. 238, 241 (1950).
44. See, e.g., Handler et al., supra note 32, at 499 ("The suggestion that the 'gap' between formal prescription and social actuality should be closed.").
45. See Amanda Frost, Certifying Questions to Congress, 101 NW. U. L. REV. 1, 72-73 (2007) (discussing "the federal courts' authority to craft federal common law - an authority that arises from the need to fill interstices in federal statutory schemes and the reality that courts are the only federal institution capable, at the time the case is before it, of filling those gaps").
46. See Eugene Kontorovich, Inefficient Customs in International Law, 48 WM. & MARY L. REV. 859, 859 (2006).
47. See The T.J. Hooper, 60 F.2d 737, 740 (2d Cir. 1932) (Hand, J.); Steven Hetcher, Creating Safe Social Norms in a Dangerous World, 73 S. CAL. L. REV. 1 (1999).
48. See U.C.C. § 2A-207(2) (2005); RESTATEMENT (SECOND) OF CONTRACTS § 203(b) (1981); Omri Ben-Shahar, "Agreeing to Disagree": Filling Gaps in Deliberately Incomplete Contracts, 2004 WIS. L. REV. 389, 396-99.
49. See A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc., 239 F.3d 1004, 1013-14 (9th Cir. 2001).
50. Cf. Ben-Shahar, supra note 48, at 396-97 (discussing efficiency rationales for relying on gap fillers in contract law).
51. See, e.g., 17 U.S.C. § 109(c) (2000) (first sale doctrine); id. § 110 (various exemptions for public performances and displays); id. §111 (compulsory license for secondary transmissions by satellite and cable); id. § 115 (compulsory license for music covers); id. § 116 (compulsory licenses for juke-boxes); id. § 117 (limited exemptions for archiving software and repairing computers); id. § 118 (compulsory license for use of certain works in public broadcasting); id. § 119 (exemption for secondary transmissions by satellite carriers); id. § 120 (scope of rights in architectural works); id. § 121 (exemption for copying materials for blind and other people with disabilities); id. § 122 (compulsory license for secondary transmissions by satellite carriers within local markets).
52. See Joseph P. Liu, Regulatory Copyright, 83 N.C. L. REV. 87, 148 (2004) ("The Copyright Office's regulatory authority has historically been limited to issues relating to its ministerial functions, such as registration and deposit.").
53. Michael W. Carroll, Fixing Fair Use, 85 N.C. L. REV. 1087, 1123-41 (2007) (proposing a Fair Use Board within the Copyright Office to provide opinions on whether a contemplated use is fair use); Liu, supra note 52, at 151-52 ("[R]ather than enacting specific industry exemptions to copyright liability, Congress could delegate to the Copyright Office the authority to promulgate additional exemptions via regulation. Thus, the Copyright Office could issue detailed provisions governing what types of uses of copyrighted works would be exempt from liability.").
54. ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICE OF THE U. S. COURTS, 2006 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, JUDICIAL BUSINESS OF THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURTS (2007) [hereinafter JUDICIAL BUSINESS].
55. See STATISTICS REPORT, supra note 1; supra note 1 and accompanying text.
56. Erin Holmes et al., List of Published Copyright Decisions by Federal District Courts in 2007 (March 10, 2008) (on file with the University of Illinois Law Review).
57. See S&L Vitamins, Inc. v. Australian Gold, Inc., 521 F. Supp. 2d 188, 213-15 (E.D.N.Y. 2007); Red Bull GmbH v. RLED, LLC, 515 F. Supp. 2d 641, 648 (M.D.N.C. 2007); Tingley Sys., Inc. v. HealthLink, Inc., 509 F. Supp. 2d 1209, 1220 (M.D. Fla. 2007); Ticketmaster L.L.C. v. RMG Tech., Inc., 507 F. Supp. 2d 1096, 1109 (CD. Cal. 2007); Healthcare Advocates, Inc. v. Harding, Earley, Follmer & Frailey, 497 F. Supp. 2d 627, 636-39 (E.D. Pa. 2007); Tavory v. NTP, Inc., 495 F. Supp. 2d 531, 538-39 (E.D. Va. 2007); Burnett v. Twentieth Century Fox Film Corp., 491 F. Supp. 2d 962, 967-72 (C.D. Cal. 2007); Fitzgerald v. CBS Broad., Inc., 491 F. Supp. 2d 177, 190 (D. Mass. 2007); Blanch v. Koons, 485 F. Supp. 2d 516, 518 (S.D.N.Y. 2007); United States v. ASCAP, 485 F. Supp. 2d 438, 444 (S.D.N.Y. 2007); Straus v. DVC Worldwide, Inc., 484 F. Supp. 2d 620, 641-44 (S.D. Tex. 2007); DSMC, Inc. v. Convera Corp., 479 F. Supp. 2d 68, 83 (D.D.C. 2007).
58. See Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd., 545 U.S. 913 (2005); Eldred v. Ashcroft, 537 U.S. 186 (2003).
59. See In re Literary Works in Elec. Databases Copyright Litig., 509 F.3d 116 (2d Cir. 2007); Davis v. Blige, 505 F.3d 90 (2d Cir. 2007); N.Y. Mercantile Exch., Inc. v. IntercontinentalExchange, Inc., 497 F.3d 109 (2d Cir. 2007); Phillips v. Audio Active Ltd., 494 F.3d 378 (2d Cir. 2007); United States v. Martignon, 492 F.3d 140 (2d Cir. 2007); Troll Co. v. Uneeda Doll Co., 483 F.3d 150 (2d Cir. 2007).
60. See Perfect 10, Inc. v. Amazon.com, Inc., 508 F.3d 1146 (9th Cir. 2007); Welles v. Turner Entm't Co., 503 F.3d 728 (9th Cir. 2007); Perfect 10, Inc. v. Visa Int'l Serv. Ass'n, 494 F.3d 788 (9th Cir. 2007); Perfect 10, Inc. v. CCBill LLC, 488 F.3d 1102 (9th Cir. 2007); Kahle v. Gonzales, 487 F.3d 697 (9th Cir. 2007); Jarvis v. K2 Inc., 486 F.3d 526 (9th Cir. 2007).
61. Edward Lee, Published Copyright Decisions by Federal Appellate Courts 2007 (March 10, 2008) (listing relevant cases) (on file with the University of Illinois Law Review).
62. Barton Beebe, An Empirical Study of U.S. Copyright Fair Use Opinions, 1978-2005, 156 U. PA. L. REV. 549, 565 (2008).
63. Id. at 567 fig.2.
64. Id. at 565.
65. U.S. COPYRIGHT OFFICE, ANNUAL REPORT OF THE REGISTER OF COPYRIGHTS: FISCAL YEAR ENDING SEPTEMBER 30, 2005, at 82 (2005).
66. All Internet Web pages, for example, automatically obtain copyrights as long as they have the modicum of originality required. By August 2005, there were 19.2 billion Web pages indexed by Yahoo. See Posting of Tim Mayer to YAHOO! SEARCH BLOG, http://www.ysearchblog.com/ archives/000172.html (Aug. 8, 2005). By September 2006, Google had indexed about 25 billion Web pages.
67. See Danny Wirken, The Google Goal of Indexing 100 Billion Web Pages, SITE PRO NEWS, Sept. 20, 2006, http://www.sitepronews.com/archives/2006/sep/20.html.
68. According to EFF, the RIAA has sued over 18,000 "John Doe" individuals (many of whom are college students) since 2003. See ELECTRONIC FRONTIER FOUNDATION, RIAA V. THE PEOPLE: FOUR YEARS LATER 6 (2007), http:/w2.eff.org/IP/P2P/riaa_at_four.pdf. It is not clear whether all of the "John Doe" suits are categorized as copyright cases in the Annual Report of the Director of the United States District Courts. See JUDICIAL BUSINESS, supra note 54 and accompanying text.
69. See Frank H. Easterbrook, Contract and Copyright, 42 HOUS. L. REV. 953, 955 (2005) (suggesting less than 1% of copyrighted publications are really commercially valuable).
70. See supra text accompanying notes 44-45.
71. See, e.g., R. Anthony Reese, Innocent Infringement in U.S. Copyright Law: A History, 30 COLUM. J.L. & ARTS 133, 183 (2007) ("A variety of types of innocent infringement likely take place today, but perhaps the most important occurs when someone knowingly copies from an existing work and reasonably but erroneously believes, because of copyright law's complex and often indeterminate scope, that her copying is permitted, not prohibited, by copyright law.").
72. Peter Pan Fabrics, Inc. v. Martin Weiner Corp., 274 F.2d 487, 489 (2d Cir. 1960).
73. Jessica Litman, The Public Domain, 39 EMORY L.J. 965, 1005 (1990).
74. See Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc., 510 U.S. 569, 577 (1994) (stating that fair use cannot "be simplified with bright-line rules, for the [copyright] statute, like the doctrine it recognizes, calls for case-by-case analysis"); Frank H. Easterbrook, Cypberspace and the Law of the Horse, 1996 U. CHI. LEGAL F. 207, 209 ("[T]he fair-use criteria are so ambulatory that no one can give a general answer.");
75. Lloyd L. Weinreb, Lecture, Fair Use, 67 FORDHAM L. REV. 1291, 1291 (1999) ("For all its exposure, our understanding of fair use has not progressed much beyond Justice Story's observation [that the fair use doctrine] . . . was 'one of those intricate and embarrassing questions . . . in which it is not . . . easy to arrive at any satisfactory conclusion, or to lay down any general principles applicable to all cases.'"). A few rare decisions have established a more general principle of fair use, such as in time-shift recording of broadcast shows or in intermediate copying of software for the limited purpose of interoperability. See Sony Corp. of Am. v. Universal City Studios, Inc., 464 U.S. 417 (1984) (time shift recording); Sega Enters. Ltd. v. Accolade, Inc., 977 F.2d 1510 (9th Cir. 1992) (reverse-engineering). Gideon Parchomovsky and Kevin Goldman argue for the creation of more bright-line "fair use harbors" that would indicate ex ante that certain uses are fair.
76. Gideon Parchomovsky & Kevin A. Goldman, Fair Use Harbors, 93 VA. L. REV. 1483 (2007).
77. See Campbell, 510 U.S. at 579 (stating that transformative "works thus lie at the heart of the fair use doctrine's guarantee of breathing space within the confines of copyright").
78. Lee v. A.R.T. Co., 125 F.3d 580, 582 (7th Cir. 1997) (discussing how a preexisting work can be transformed to create a derivative work).
79. See SunTrust Bank v. Houghton Mifflin Co., 136 F. Supp. 2d 1357, 1365 (N.D. Ga. 2001) (discussing the right to make a derivative work).
80. See SunTrust Bank v. Houghton Mifflin Co., 268 F.3d 1257, 1268-76 (11th Cir. 2001).
81. See Michael J. Madison, Rewriting Fair Use and the Future of Copyright Reform, 23 CARDOZO ARTS & ENT. L.J. 391, 396 (2005).
82. INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE TASK FORCE, INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY AND THE NATIONAL INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE: THE REPORT OF THE WORKING GROUP ON INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS 204 (1995).
83. PAT AUFDERHEIDE & PETER JASZI, THE GOOD, THE BAD, AND THE CONFUSING: USER-GENERATED VIDEO CREATORS ON COPYRIGHT 2 (2007).
84. Id. at 6.
85. Id.
86. Id. at 7.
87. See Easterbrook, supra note 73, at 208-09.
88. Williams & Wilkins Co. v. U.S., 487 F.2d 1345, 1362 (Ct. Cl. 1973).
89. Williams & Wilkins Co. v. U.S., 420 U.S. 376 (1975).
90. See Am. Geophysical Union v. Texaco, Inc., 60 F.3d 913, 916 (2d Cir. 1994) ("We do not deal with the question of copying by an individual, for personal use in research or otherwise (not for resale), recognizing that under the fair use doctrine or the de minimis doctrine, such a practice by an individual might well not constitute an infringement. In other words, our opinion does not decide the case that would arise if Chickering were a professor or an independent scientist engaged in copying and creating files for independent research . . . ."). Courts have held that the creation of university "course packs" without authorization from copyright holders was infringement. See, e.g., Princeton Univ. Press v. Michigan Document Servs., Inc., 99 F.3d 1381 (6th Cir. 1996); Basic Books, Inc. v. Kinko's Graphics Corp., 758 F. Supp. 1522 (S.D.N.Y. 1991).
91. Jessica Litman, Lawful Personal Use, 85 TEX. L. REV. 1871, 1879 (2007).
92. See 17 U.S.C. § 201(b) (2000) (definition of work made for hire).
93. See Hays v. Sony Corp. of Am., 847 F.2d 412, 416 (7th Cir. 1988) (noting that "virtually no one questioned that the academic author was entitled to copyright his writings"): Weinstein v. Univ. of Ill., 811 F.2d 1091, 1094 (7th Cir. 1987) (recognizing that "the academic tradition [of a professor exception to the work-made-for-hire doctrine] since copyright law began" was unchallenged by the University of Illinois). But cf. Shaul v. Cherry Valley-Springfield Cent. Sch. Dist., 363 F.3d 177, 186 (2d Cir. 2004) (unpublished assignments by high school teacher fell within work-made-for-hire); Rouse v. Walter & Assocs., L.L.C., 513 F. Supp. 2d 1041, 1065 (S.D. Iowa 2007) (university professors' creation of software program was work-made-for-hire). For further discussion, see Rochelle Cooper Dreyfuss, The Creative Employee and the Copyright Act of 1976, 54 U. CHI. L. REV. 590 (1987) (discussing the debate);
94. Ashley Packard, Copyright or Copy Wrong: An Analysis of University Claims to Faculty Work, 7 COMM. L. & POL'Y 275 (2002);
95. Russ VerSteeg, Copyright and the Educational Process: The Right of Teacher Inception, 75 IOWA L. REV. 381 (1990).
96. See Jane C. Ginsburg, Copyright and Control over New Technologies of Dissemination, 101 COLUM. L. REV. 1613, 1622-26 (2001).
97. See Edward Lee, Rules and Standards for Cyberspace, 77 NOTRE DAME L. REV. 1275, 1307 (2002).
98. See Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Sony Corp. of Am., 480 F. Supp. 429, 432 (C.D. Cal. 1979).
99. See Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Sony Corp. of Am., 659 F.2d 963 (9th Cir. 1981).
100. See Sony Corp. of Am. v. Universal City Studios, Inc., 464 U.S. 417 (1984).
101. See JAMES LARDNER, FAST FORWARD: HOLLYWOOD, THE JAPANESE, AND THE ONSLAUGHT OF THE VCR 163-67, 197 (1987).
102. See id. at 203-05.
103. Sony, 464 U.S. at 456.
104. See Twentieth Century Fox Film Corp. v. Cablevision Sys. Corp., 478 F. Supp. 2d 607, 624 (S.D.N.Y. 2007) (cable company's DVR system allowing subscribers to record shows on company's central servers and play back later facilitated copyright infringement - although defendant did not raise fair use defense).
105. See Justin Hughes, Fair Use Across Time, 50 UCLA L. REV. 775 (2003);
106. Joseph P. Liu, Copyright and Time: A Proposal, 101 MICH. L. REV. 409 (2002).
107. The enforceability of these contracts has generated a considerable amount of discussion. See, e.g., Dennis S. Karjala, Federal Preemption of Shrinkwrap and On-Line Licenses, 22 U. DAYTON L. REV. 511, 513 (1997);
108. Ian Rambarran & Robert Hunt, Are Browse-Wrap Agreements All They Are Wrapped Up to Be?, 9 TUL. J. TECH. & INTELL. PROP. 173 (2007);
109. Matthew D. Walden, Note, Could Fair Use Equal Breach of Contract?: An Analysis of Informational Web Site User Agreements and Their Restrictive Copyright Provisions, 58 WASH. & LEE L. REV. 1625 (2001).
110. See Lydia Pallas Loren, Building a Reliable Semicommons of Creative Works: Enforcement of Creative Commons Licenses and Limited Abandonment of Copyright, 14 GEO. MASON L. REV. 271, 285-86 (2007).
111. Id. at 285-94.
112. Id. at 286-87.
113. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd., 545 U.S. 913, 923 (2005).
114. See Stuart Elliott, Student's Ad Gets a Remake, and Makes the Big Time, N.Y. TIMES, Oct. 26, 2007, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/26/business/media/26appleweb.html?_r=2&oref= slogin&oref=slogin.
115. Id.
116. See Andrew Wallenstein, 'SNL' Skit Puts YouTube on Map, HOLLYWOOD REPORTER, Mar. 21, 2006, available at http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/search/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id= 1002199880.
117. Id.
118. Id.
119. The Charlie Rose Show: A Conversation with the Founders of YouTube (PBS television broadcast Aug. 11, 2006), available at http://www.charlierose.com/shows/2006/08/11/3/a-conversation-with-the-founders- of-youtube.
120. Id.
121. Id.
122. Sara Kehaulani Goo, NBC Taps Popularity of Online Video Site, WASH. POST, June 28, 2006, at D1.
123. Id.
124. NBC appears to be still working out - or hedging on - its online video strategy. In June 2006, NBC announced a strategic partnership with YouTube in which NBC created its own channel on YouTube to show NBC videos. Press Release, YouTube, NBC and YouTube Announce Strategic Partnership, (June 27, 2006), at http://www.youtube.com/press_room_entry?entry=c0g5-NsDdJQ. In 2007, NBC suddenly removed its YouTube channel, preferring instead to launch its videos on its own NBC site and on Hulu, a joint project between NBC and FOX.
125. Owen Thomas, NBC Pulls YouTube Channel, VALLEYWAG, Oct. 21, 2007, http://valleywag.com/tech/online-video/nbc-pulls-youtube-channel- 313276.php. Later, however, Hulu decided to launch another channel back on YouTube that included NBC videos!
126. Liz Gaines, Hulu Brings NBC (and FOX) Back to YouTube, NEWTEEVEE, May 1, 2008, http://newteevee.com/2008/05/ 01/hulu-brings-nbc-and-fox-back-to-youtube/.
127. See J.D. LASICA, DARKNET: HOLLYWOOD'S WAR AGAINST THE DIGITAL GENERATION 72-73 (2005).
128. See 17 U.S.C. § 110(11) (Supp. V 2005).
129. U.S. CONST. art. I, § 8, cl. 8.
130. See Feist Publ'ns, Inc. v. Rural Tel. Serv. Co., 499 U.S. 340, 345-47 (1991) (originality); Eldred v. Ashcroft, 537 U.S. 186, 209 (2003) (limited times).
131. Rothman, supra note 29.
132. Id. at 1972.
133. Handler et al., supra note 32, at 494.
134. Orly Lobel, The Renew Deal: The Fall of Regulation and the Rise of Governance in Contemporary Legal Thought, 89 MINN. L. REV. 342, 344 (2004).
135. Id. at 348.
136. See id. at 388-89 (discussing various ways in which "soft law" is used in legal scholarship).
137. Cf. Alfred C. Aman, Jr., Law, Markets and Democracy: A Role for Law in the Neo-Liberal State, 51 N.Y.L. SCH. L. REV. 801 (2006-2007) (discussing how New Governance attempts to move beyond the state-market dichotomy).
138. See Lobel, supra note 124, at 400 (describing the New Governance goal of orchestration to make "the governance model meaningful").
139. Other scholars have questioned whether the New Governance paradigm can work in contexts where there are inequalities of power or disputes between strong and weak actors. See, e.g., Amy J. Cohen, Negotiation, Meet New Governance: Interests, Skills, and Selves, 33 LAW & SOC. INQUIRY 503, 535, 540 (2008).
140. Cf. Lobel, supra note 124, at 377 (discussing the goals of the New Governance model).
141. See 17 U.S.C. § 1201(a)(1)(B)-(C) (2000).
142. See, e.g., id. §§ 112(e)(2) (ephemeral recordings), 114(e) (sound recordings), 115(c)(3)(B) (covers), 116 (jukeboxes), 118 (public broadcasting).
143. See infra notes 134-35 and accompanying text.
144. See generally WILLIAM M. LANDES & RICHARD A. POSNER, THE ECONOMIC STRUCTURE OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY LAW 8, 16 (2003) (discussing why the scope of intellectual property must be narrower than physical property, given the high transaction costs for intellectual property);
145. William M. Landes & Richard A. Posner, An Economic Analysis of Copyright Law, 18 J. LEGAL STUD. 325, 357 (1989) (arguing for fair use when "costs of a voluntary exchange are so high relative to the benefits that no such exchange is feasible between a user of a copyrighted work and its owner").
146. Wendy J. Gordon, Fair Use as Market Failure: A Structural and Economic Analysis of the Betamax Case and Its Predecessors, 82 COLUM. L. REV. 1600, 1628 (1982) (emphasis added).
147. 487 F.2d 1345 (Ct. Cl. 1973).
148. Williams & Wilkins Co. v. United States, 420 U.S. 376 (1975). To borrow Judge Leval's description, this issue might be the kind of "question[] that never need[s] to be answered" in copyright law because it is never presented. Pierre N. Leval, Nimmer Lecture: Fair Use Rescued, 44 UCLA L. REV. 1449, 1457 (1997).
149. See 17 U.S.C. § 108 (2000).
150. See cases cited supra note 87 and accompanying text.
151. See In re Aimster Copyright Litig., 334 F.3d 643, 645 (7th Cir. 2003); A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc., 239 F.3d 1004, 1013-14 (9th Cir. 2001).
152. See Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd., 545 U.S. 913, 923 (2005).
153. Compare Atl. Recording Corp. v. Howell, No. CV-06-020760-PHX-NVW, 2008 WL 1927353, at *4 (D. Ariz. Apr. 29, 2008) (stating infringement of a distribution right requires actual dissemination of copies or phonorecords, not just proof of making a copy available), and London-Sire Records, Inc. v. Doe 1, 542 F. Supp. 2d 153, 176 (D. Mass. 2008) ("[M]erely exposing music files to the internet is not copyright infringement . . . [but] [t]he evidence and allegations, taken together, are sufficient to allow a statistically reasonable inference that at least one copyrighted work was downloaded at least once."), and Atl. Recording Corp. v. Brennan, 534 F. Supp. 2d 278, 281-82 (D. Conn. 2008) (explaining that actual distribution, not just making a file available, in file-sharing case may be required to prove a violation of distribution right), with Elektra Entm't Group, Inc. v. Barker, No. 05-CV-7340, 2008 WL 857527, at *6 (S.D.N.Y. Mar. 31, 2008) (holding that the distribution right of 17 U.S.C. § 106(3) may be infringed by "[t]he offer to distribute copies or phonorecords to a group of persons for purposes of further distribution, public performance, or public display").
154. Cf. New State Ice Co. v. Leibmann, 285 U.S. 262, 310-11 (1932) (Brandeis, J., dissenting).
155. See supra notes 12-15 and accompanying text.
156. See supra note 13 and accompanying text.
157. User-Generated and -Watched Content, Opinions, L.A. TIMES.COM, Jan. 14, 2008, http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-ed- content14jan14,0,3327482.story.
158. Technorati tracks 112.8 million blogs. See Technorati: About Us, http://technorati.com/about/ (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
159. Id.
160. See Stephen Baker, Google and the Wisdom of the Clouds, BUSINESSWEEK, Dec. 24, 2007, at 49-53 (discussing cloud computing);
161. Eric Schmidt, Web 2.0 vs. Web 3.0, posting of channy to YouTube, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T0QJmmdw3b0 (Aug. 2, 2007).
162. See NICHOLAS CARR, THE BIG SWITCH 21-23 (2007).
163. Id. at 23.
164. Tumblr is a microblogging site that enables users to post quickly all sorts of content within a blog platform. It is meant for much shorter and more frequent postings than a traditional blog. Tumblr's motto is "Post anything. Customize everything." Tumblr, http://www.tumblr.com (last visited Aug. 11, 2008);
165. see also Blake Robinson, Davidville, Inc. Tumbles into the Spotlight with Tumblr, TECHCRUNCH, Apr. 2, 2007, http://www.techcrunch.com/2007/04/02/davidville-inc-tumbles-into-the-spotlight- with-tumblr/.
166. Sprout is a Web site that allows users to mashup content on the Internet and convert it into embeddable widgets. Sprout Builder, http://sproutbuilder.com (last visited Aug. 11, 2008);
167. see also Mark Hendrickson, Sprout Raises $5 Million for Flash Widget Creation, TECHCRUNCH, May 13, 2008, http://www.techcrunch.com/2008/05/13/sprout-raises-5-million-for-flash-widget- creation/.
168. See Microsoft Popfly, http://www.popfly.com (last visited Aug. 11, 2008). Microsoft describes Popfly as follows: "[A] fun, easy way to build and share mashups, gadgets, games, Web pages, and applications." Overview, Microsoft Popfly, http://www.popfly.com/Overview/Default.aspx (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
169. See Intel Mash Maker, http://mashmaker.intel.com/web/ (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
170. The Mash Maker is a browser extension that allows users to create mashups of whatever they browse on the Web. Learn More: FAQs, Intel Mash Maker, http://mashmaker.intel.com/web/faqs.html (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
171. Martin LaMonica, Intel Mash Maker: Mash-ups for the Masses, CNET NEWS BLOG, Apr. 22, 2008, http://www.news.com/8301-10784_3- 9921313-7.html.
172. LASICA, supra note 117, at 14.
173. See id. at 83; see also Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Main_Page (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
174. See Yochai Benkler, Coase's Penguin, or, Linux and The Nature of the Firm, 112 YALE L.J. 369, 381 (2002) (defining the term as the "production by peers who interact and collaborate without being organized on either a market-based or a managerial/hierarchical model").
175. Id. at 414.
176. Id. at 422.
177. See Google Advertising Programs, http://www.google.com/intl/en/ ads/ (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
178. For example, Dutch teenager Esmee Denters was signed by Justin Timberlake's new label, Interscope, to a recording contract after Timberlake
179. See infra notes 259-68 and accompanying text.
180. See infra notes 280-85 and accompanying text.
181. See Jeff Leeds, Nine Inch Nails Album Is Free Online, N.Y. TIMES.COM, May 6, 2008, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/06arts/music/ 05cnd-nine.html?partner=rssnyt&emc=rss;
182. David Malitz, Radiohead's 'Rainbows': Is Free Release a Potential Pot of Gold?, WASH. POST, Oct. 11, 2007, at C1.
183. See Eliot Van Buskirk, Mp3s: Amplive's 'Rainydayz' Remix of Radiohead's 'In Rainbows' Album, WIRED BLOG, Feb. 13, 2008, http://blog.wired.com/music/2008/02/mp3s-amplives-r.html.
184. Nine Inch Nails, The Slip, http://dl.nin.com/theslip/signup (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
185. Id.
186. See, e.g., Katyal, supra note 37, at 470-79 (discussing performance theory); Madhavi Sunder, Cultural Dissent, 54 STAN. L. REV. 495, 555-67 (2001) (arguing that identity and personhood are developed by the ability to participate in cultural material).
187. See Reno v. ACLU, 521 U.S. 844 (1997).
188. Id. at 870.
189. Red Lion Broad. Co. v. FCC, 395 U.S. 367, 390 (1969).
190. Cf. Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 306, 330 (2003) ("[M]ajor American businesses have made clear that the skills needed in today's increasingly global marketplace can only be developed through exposure to widely diverse people, cultures, ideas, and viewpoints.").
191. See Edward Lee, Freedom of the Press 2.0, 42 GA. L. REV. 309, 339-51 (2008).
192. Id. at 339.
193. Id. at 334-39.
194. See Reno v. ACLU, 521 U.S. 844, 870 (1997) (Internet); Denver Area Educ. Telecomms. Consortium, Inc. v. FEC, 518 U.S. 727, 791-92 (1996) (Kennedy, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part) ("[Public access channels] provide groups and individuals who generally have not had access to the electronic media with the opportunity to become sources of information in the electronic marketplace of ideas.") (quoting H.R. REP. NO. 98-934); Turner Broad. Sys., Inc. v. FCC, 512 U.S. 622, 639 (1994) (plurality) (cable); Miami Herald Publ'g Co. v. Tornillo, 418 U.S. 241, 253 (1974) (newspaper); Red Lion Broad., 395 U.S. at 390 (radio); see also Ginsburg, supra note 91, at 1622-26.
195. See ANDREW KEEN, THE CULT OF THE AMATEUR 16 (2007) ("What the Web 2.0 revolution is really delivering is superficial observations of the world around us rather than deep analysis, shrill opinion rather than considered judgment.").
196. Cohen v. California, 403 U.S. 15, 25 (1971); see also Edenfield v. Fane, 507 U.S. 761, 767 (1993) ("The commercial marketplace, like other spheres of our social and cultural life, provides a forum where ideas and information flourish. Some of the ideas and information are vital, some of slight worth. But the general rule is that the speaker and the audience, not the government, assess the value of the information presented.").
197. Bleistein v. Donaldson Lithographing Co., 188 U.S. 239, 251 (1903).
198. Rebecca Tushnet has criticized the notion that wholesale copying of works serves First Amendment interests somehow less than transformative fair uses. See Rebecca Tushnet, Copy This Essay: How Fair Use Doctrine Harms Free Speech and How Copying Serves It, 114 YALE L.J. 535 (2004). Tushnet sees pure copying of copyrighted works as potentially furthering self-expression and participation in culture through persuasion and affirmation based on works with which the speaker identifies. Id. at 564-82. She points out that the Copyright Act itself contains numerous exemptions that allow for straight out copying of works, without any transformation of the original work. Id. at 553-54. I agree with Tushnet's basic point that a First Amendment interest exists in the widespread dissemination of works through straight out copying. In an earlier article, I made a similar argument with respect to works in the public domain, which serve "an even more elemental role" than spurring creativity by simply "ensur[ing] universal access to our common culture and knowledge."
199. Edward Lee, The Public's Domain: The Evolution of Legal Restraints on the Government's Power to Control Public Access Through Secrecy or Intellectual Property, 55 HASTINGS L.J. 91, 162 (2003). Once we move to copyrighted works, however, I believe the First Amendment interest in widespread copying and dissemination of works must be balanced with the Copyright Clause's goal to incentivize the creation of works. Even Tushnet admits that "[t]radeoffs are inevitable" in striking this balance. Tushnet. supra, at 537.
200. See Robert Sprague, Business Blogs and Commercial Speech: A New Analytical Framework for the 21st Century, 44 AM. BUS. L.J. 127, 129 n.7 (2007).
201. See Chuck Crisafulli, Success Hasn't Changed Up-and-Comer Michaelson, BILLBOARD.COM, Dec. 11, 2007, http://www.billboard.com/ bbcom/search/google/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1003683959.
202. Ingrid Michaelson Charts Course for Indies, BUS. TIMES ONLINE, Dec. 10, 2007, http://www.btimes.com.my/ Current_News/BTIMES/BizFocusPDF/1012cmfc48.pdf.
203. Id.
204. Id.
205. Crisafulli, supra note 184.
206. Web Scout, From the Sunday Calendar: YouTube Hits 75 Million Videos, and What That Means, L.A. TIMES BLOG, Feb. 28, 2008, http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/webscout/2008/02/from-the-sund-1.html.
207. See Smosh's Channel, YouTube, http://www.youtube.com/user/smosh (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
208. See Smosh's Videos, YouTube, http://www.youtube.com/ profile_videos?user=smosh&p=v (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
209. A search on YouTube generated 275 clips. YouTube, http://www.youtube.com/ results?search_query=terra+naomi+say+it%27s+possible+cover&search_type= (last visited Aug. 31, 2008).
210. See, e.g., Say It's Possible. . . .Chinese Rendition, posting of aureliaz to YouTube, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I0iCKLsQyew (Nov. 22, 2006).
211. See, e.g., Say It's Possible, Italian Version (Terra Naomi Cover), posting of ConstantinoSeby to YouTube, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v= vLa11YRHnV4 (Oct. 13, 2007).
212. See, e.g., Terra Naomi "Say It's Possible" Translated in Spanish, posting of gabrielederose to YouTube, http://www.youtube.com/watch? v=bMxDX-mcpQg (Feb. 18, 2007).
213. See, e.g., Terra Naomi - Say It's Possible Remix, posting of marone42 to YouTube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zapd3MLOr04 (July 26, 2006);
214. Terra Naomi - Say It's Possible (Complete Band Version), posting of henrio70 to YouTube, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DLp5Dgja6Os (Dec. 14, 2006).
215. See, e.g., Say It's Possible (Double Speed Version), posting of isellsoap to YouTube, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PHX4aEofnB0 (Nov. 13, 2006).
216. See Re: Say It's Possible, posting of kfuzd to YouTube, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jmX9ccwpNrQ (Apr. 2, 2007).
217. See Terra Naomi's "Say It's Possible," posting of terranaomi to YouTube, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AlXlhFlHR8A (Dec. 31, 2006).
218. See 17 U.S.C. § 106 (2000).
219. See id. § 107.
220. See Rogers v. Koons, 960 F.2d 301 (2d Cir. 1992) (holding Koon's sculpture "String of Puppies" infringed the Art Rogers photograph "Puppies," which Koons closely copied); United Features Syndicate v. Koons, 817 F. Supp. 370 (S.D.N.Y. 1993) (finding infringement by Koons's sculpture "Wild Boy and Puppy," which included a figure that closely copied the "Odie" character from the cartoon Garfield); Campbell v. Koons, No. 91-CV-6055, 1993 WL 97381 (S.D.N.Y. Apr. 1, 1993) (finding infringement by Koons's sculpture "Ushering in Banality," which closely copied a photograph of two boys trying to push a pig into a gift box).
221. Blanch v. Koons, 467 F.3d 244 (2d Cir. 2006).
222. Blanch, 467 F.3d at 427.
223. Id.
224. Id. at 253.
225. Id.
226. 126 F.3d 70 (2d Cir. 1997).
227. Id. at 73, 77, 81.
228. See id. at 81.
229. See, e.g., L.A. News Serv. v. KCAL-TV Channel 9, 108 F.3d 1119, 1122-23 (9th Cir. 1997); see also Elvis Presley Enters., Inc. v. Passport Video, 349 F.3d 622, 629-31 (9th Cir. 2003) (use of copyrighted footage of Elvis for documentary unlikely to be fair use).
230. 410 F.3d 792 (6th Cir. 2005).
231. Id. at 796, 805. A musical work means the composition - music and/or lyrics - written by the composer. The sound recording is the performance of a musical work that is captured on a recording. The Copyright Act treats the scope of rights differently, according greater protection for musical works. See 17 U.S.C. §§ 106, 114 (2000).
232. Bridgeport, 410 F.3d at 802 (rejecting de minimis defense for sampling); see also Grand Upright Music Ltd. v. Warner Bros. Records, 780 F. Supp. 182, 183 (S.D.N.Y. 1991). For further discussion, see Christopher D. Abramson, Digital Sampling and the Recording Musician: A Proposal for Legislative Protection, 74 N.Y.U. L. REV. 1660 (1999);
233. A. Dean Johnson, Music Copyrights: The Need for an Appropriate Fair Use Analysis in Digital Sampling Infringement Suits, 21 FLA. ST. U. L. REV. 135 (1993);
234. Susan J. Latham, Newton v. Diamond: Measuring the Legitimacy of Unauthorized Compositional Sampling - A Clue Illuminated and Obscured, 26 HASTINGS COMM. & ENT. L.J. 119 (2003);
235. David Sanjek, "Don't Have to DJ No More": Sampling and the "Autonomous" Creator, 10 CARDOZO ARTS & ENT. L.J. 607 (1992);
236. Stephen R. Wilson, Music Sampling Lawsuits: Does Looping Music Samples Defeat the De Mimimis Defense?, 1 J. HIGH TECH. L. 179 (2002);
237. Amanda Webber, Note, Digital Sampling and the Legal Implications of Its Use After Bridgeport, 22 ST. JOHN'S J. LEGAL COMMENT. 373 (2007).
238. Bridgeport, 410 F.3d at 799.
239. Id. at 798.
240. Id. at 805.
241. Hofheinz v. A & E Television Networks, 146 F. Supp. 2d 442, 448-49 (S.D.N.Y. 2001).
242. Monster Commc'ns, Inc. v. Turner Broad. Sys., Inc., 935 F. Supp. 490, 495 (S.D.N.Y. 1996).
243. Hofheinz v. AMC Prods., Inc., 147 F. Supp. 2d 127, 139-41 (E.D.N.Y. 2001).
244. Ringgold v. Black Entm't Television, Inc., 126 F.3d 70, 72, 81 (2d Cir. 1997).
245. See Bill Graham Archives v. Dorling Kindersley Ltd., 448 F.3d 605, 615 (2d Cir. 2006).
246. Sandoval v. New Line Cinema Corp., 147 F.3d 215, 216-18 (2d Cir. 1998); see also Gordon v. Nextel Commc'ns, 345 F.3d 922, 924 (6th Cir. 2003) (explaining the de minimis use of copyrighted illustrations for roughly twenty seconds total in defendant's television commercial, with poor visibility).
247. 388 F.3d 1189, 1190 (9th Cir. 2004).
248. Id.
249. 4 NIMMER ON COPYRIGHT, supra note 19, § 13.01[A][2][b], at 13-59 to 13-65.
250. Lennon v. Premise Media Corp., L.P., No. 08 Civ. 03813(SHS), 2008 WL 2262631 (S.D.N.Y. June 2, 2008).
251. Id. at *3, 8-9.
252. Id. at *9, 12.
253. YouTube, YouTube Opens Internet Video to the Masses, http://www.youtube.com/press_room_entry?entry=OcN9xXYar1g (Dec. 15, 2005).
254. Nielsen/NetRatings, YouTube U.S. Web Traffic Grows 75 Percent Week Over Week, According to Nielsen/NetRatings, July 21, 2006, http://www.nielsen-netratings.com/pr/pr_060721_2.pdf.
255. Marshall Kirkpatrick, YouTube Serves 100m Videos Each Day, TECHCRUNCH, July 17, 2006, http://www.techcrunch.com/2006/07/ 17/youtube-serves-100m-videos-each-day/.
256. Bob Garfield, YouTube vs. Boob Tube, WIRED, Dec. 2006, at 226.
257. Hitwise, Hitwise Data Shows Overall Visits to Video Search Sites Up 164%, May 24, 2006, http://www.hitwise.com/press-center/hitwiseHS2004/ videosearch.php.
258. Scott Woolley, Video Fixation, FORBES, Oct. 16, 2006, http://www.forbes.com/free_forbes/2006/1016/=100a.html.
259. See The Football Ass'n Premier League Ltd. v. YouTube, Inc., No. 07-CV-3582 (S.D.N.Y. filed May 4, 2007); Viacom Int'l, Inc. v. YouTube, Inc., No. 07-CV-02103 (S.D.N.Y. filed March 13, 2007).
260. Universal's lawsuit objects to unauthorized copies of Universal's music and music videos on MySpace, as well as unauthorized synchronization of Universal's music into user videos. See Complaint, ¶ 17, UMG Recordings v. MySpace, Inc., No. 06-CV-07361 (C.D. Cal. filed Nov. 17, 2006), available at http://news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/ip/umgmyspace111706cmp. html/.
261. See 17 U.S.C. § 512 (2000).
262. See Complaint, ¶ 61, The Football Ass'n Premier League Ltd. v. YouTube, Inc., No. 07-CV-3582 (S.D.N.Y. filed May 4, 2007), available at http://docs.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/new-york/nysdce/1: 2007cv03582/305574/1/;
263. Complaint, ¶ 3, Viacom Int'l, Inc. v. YouTube, Inc., No. 07-CV-02103 (S.D.N.Y. filed Mar. 13, 2007), available at http://docs.justia.com/ cases/federal/district-courts/new-york/nysdce/1:2007cv02103/302164/1/.
264. See Complaint, The Football Ass'n Premier League Ltd. v. YouTube, Inc., No. 07-CV-3582 (S.D.N.Y. filed May 4, 2007), available at http://docs.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/new-york/nysdce/1: 2007cv03582/305574/1/;
265. Complaint, Viacom Int'l, Inc. v. YouTube, Inc., No. 07-CV-02103 (S.D.N.Y. filed Mar. 13, 2007), available at http://docs.justia.com/cases/federal/ district-courts/new-york/nysdce/1:2007cv02103/302164/1/.
266. See Amended Complaint, ¶¶ 99 18-19, The Football Ass'n Premier League Ltd. v. YouTube, Inc., No. 07-CV-3582 (S.D.N.Y. filed Nov. 7, 2007), available at http://docs.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/ new-york/nysdce/1:2007cv03582/305574/58/.
267. See LASICA, supra note 117, at 250-51.
268. The Utube Blog, Viacom v. Google: Their Lawyers Debate the Lawsuit, Apr. 15, 2007, http://theutubeblog.com/2007/04/15/viacom-v- youtubegoogle-their-lawyers-debate-lawsuit/.
269. Viacom posted the letter on its Web site, but the link is no longer operational. The policy was developed after Viacom mistakenly sent a DMCA notice to take down a Stephen Colbert parody, "Stop the Falsiness," video on YouTube that contained some Viacom content. See Eric Bangeman, Viacom: We Goofed on Colbert Parody Takedown Notice; Case Dismissed, ARS TECHNICA, April 23, 2007, http://arstechnica.com/news.ars/ post/20070423-viacom-we-goofed-on-colbert-parody-takedown-notice-case-dismissed. html. In a recent interview, the General Counsel of Viacom, Michael Fricklas, expressed Viacom's position in support of transformative reuses of its copyrighted content in non-commercial user-generated mashups and parodies. Interview by Andy Plesser with Michael Fricklas, Executive Vice President and General Counsel, Viacom (Sept. 9, 2007), available at http://blip.tv/file/378755.
270. Letter from Mark C. Merrill, Deputy General Counsel, Viacom, to Fred von Lohmann, Electronic Frontier Foundation (Apr. 17, 2007) (available at http://www.eff.org/files/filenode/moveon_v_viacom/0417_letter_fvl.pdf);
271. see also Alexandra Wharton, Getting into the Mashup, REVENUE, Sept./Oct. 2007, http://www.revenuetoday.com/story/ Getting+Into+the+Mashup+Mix&readpage=2 (discussing statements by Viacom lawyer Mark Morrill that Viacom "is only interested in pursuing infringement of Viacom material on YouTube for nontransformative, verbatim use. Viacom is not pursuing transformative uses - which is the description that mashups and remixing fall under").
272. The conference was held at the Villanova Law School on February 24, 2007. The MPAA representative was Michael O'Leary, Senior Vice President and Chief Counsel for Federal Affairs and Policy.
273. The Original Scary 'Mary Poppins' Recul Trailer, posting of moviemkr to YouTube, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2T5_0AGdFic (Oct. 8, 2006).
274. Id.
275. Disney CEO Bob Iger spoke generally about UGC, not seeing it as a threat to traditional media. In fact, he stated that he wished Disney had come up with the idea for YouTube first. See Chrystia Freeland & Matthew Garrahan, Transcript: Interview with Bob Iger, FIN. TIMES, Jan. 31, 2007, http://us.ft.com/ftgateway/superpage.ft?news_id= fto013120071326082907&page=2.
276. Louis Trager, We're Friend of YouTube Mashups, P2P, Fair Use, Warner Executive Says, WASH. INTERNET DAILY, Mar. 12, 2007.
277. Id.
278. Sara Kehaulani Goo, Art and Marketing All Mashed Up, WASH. POST, Aug. 2, 2006, at D1.
279. Mike Sachoff, CBS Playing on the Digital Field, WEBPRONEWS, Jan. 10, 2007, http://www.webpronews.com/ topnews/2007/01/10/cbs-playing-on-the-digital-field.
280. CBS to Allow Viewers to Post Clips on Net, CBS NEWS ONLINE, Jan. 9, 2006, http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/01/09/ces/ main2344251.shtml.
281. Saul Hansell, Bits Debate: On the Rights of Readers and Viewers, N.Y. TIMES BITS BLOG, Jan. 18, 2008, http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/01/18/bits-debate-on-the-rights-of-readers- and-viewers.
282. Lucasfilm, for example, has promoted user mashups of Star Wars on its site, complete with video clips and editing tools, although with restrictions against nudity and pornography. Sarah McBride, Make-It-Yourself 'Star Wars,' WALL ST. J., May 24, 2007, http://online.wsj.com/public/article/SB117997273760812981.html. Viacom and Sony BMG have also promoted user mashups on their sites. Id. To launch its famous swimsuit issue in 2008, Sports Illustrated held a video mashup contest in which users could remix footage of the photo shoots taken by the magazine and create mashup videos of their own.
283. See SI Swimsuit Video Mash Up Sweepstakes, http://simashup. secondthought.com/index.html (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
284. Laura M. Holson, Hollywood Asks YouTube Friend or Foe?, N.Y. TIMES, Jan. 15, 2007, at C1.
285. Id.
286. See, e.g., AT&T, News Room, AT&T Launches Mash-Up Madness Video Contest for Hoops Fans, Feb. 27, 2007, http://www.att.com/gen/ press-room?pid=4800&cdvn=news&newsarticleid=23442;
287. WashingtonPost.com, Video Mash-Up, Aug. 1, 2006, http://www. washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/video/2006/08/01/VI2006080100794.html.
288. See Antony Bruno, MTV Service Seeks Revenue from Fan Remixes, BILLBOARD, July 10, 2007, available at http://www/reuters.com/article/internetNews/idUSN0620281220070707.
289. See My MTV Movie Awards '07 on Yahoo!, http://mtvmovieawards. yahoo.com/spoofs/toolbox (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
290. See Duran Duran: "Falling Down" Video Mash-up Challenge, http://www.duranduranonline.com/fallingdown/ (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
291. See Bowie Net, http://www.davidbowie.com/neverFollow/ (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
292. See Nike: 6.0 Auction Sports Video Mashup Contest, http://www.nike.com/nkeb/v5/#/insider/post_705 (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
293. See ACIDPlanet.com, Fusion Hash Concerts' Tegan and Sara Mash-Up Contest, http://www.acidplanet.com/contests/fusionflash (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
294. See YouTube, The UpStage by Samsung Contest, http://www.youtube. com/profile?user=SamsungContest (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
295. See Michael Paoletta, Exclusive: Missy Elliott, Doritos Team for Multi-Platform Campaign, BILLBOARD.BIZ, Aug. 24, 2007, http://www.billboard.biz/bbbiz/content_display/industry/ e3i4951dddd30e582138477721299144162.
296. See YouTube, Community, http://www.youtube.com/community (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
297. The group included CBS, Dailymotion, Disney, Fox, Microsoft, MySpace, NBC Universal, Veoh, and Viacom. See Principles for User Generated Content Services, http://www.ugcprinciples.com/ (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
298. Id.
299. See EFF, Fair Use Principles for User Generated Video Content, http://www.eff.org/issues/ip-and-free-speech/fair-use-principles-usergen (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
300. For example, Ron Wheeler, senior vice president of content production at Fox Entertainment Group, stated that "[w]e are not in the business of just saying no, but we do consider it unauthorized use." Holson, supra note 257.
301. Id.
302. Fliptrack/APM Music Deal to Create World's Largest Mashup Music Library, DATAMONITOR, May 15, 2007, http://www.datamonitor.com/ industries/news/article/?pid=774C9F31-D0BF-40C0-86D4-8D46AB7e88B7&type= NewsWire.
303. See Wharton, supra note 245 ("YouTube has deals with Warner, Sony BMG, EMI and Universal Music Group that enable people to legitimately incorporate works from these record labels' artists into their user-generated content on YouTube.").
304. They include Bourne Company, Murbo Music Publishing, Cherry Lane Music Publishing, Cal IV Entertainment, National Music Publishers' Association, The Rodgers & Hammerstein Organization, Stage Three Music, Edward B. Marks Music, Freddy Bienstock Music, Alley Music, X-Ray Dog Music, The Music Force Media Group, The Music Force, and Sin-Drome Records. See Amended Class Action Complaint, Football Ass'n Premier League Ltd. v. YouTube, Inc., No. 07-CV-3582 (S.D.N.Y. filed Nov. 7, 2007), available at http://docs.justicia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/new-york/nysdce/1: 2007cv03582/305574/58/.
305. See Nicholas B. Lewis, Comment, Shades of Grey: Can the Copyright Fair Use Defense Adapt to New Re-Contextualized Forms of Music and Art?, 55 AM. U. L. REV. 267, 280-86 (2005).
306. See Joshua Schwartz, Thinking Outside the Pandora's Box: Why the DMCA Is Unconstitutional Under Article I, § 8 of the U.S. Constitution, 10 J. TECH. L. & POL'Y 93, 144 (2005) (discussing David Bowie);
307. My Life in the Bush of Ghosts, http://bushofghosts.wmg.com/home.php (last visited Aug. 11, 2008) (discussing David Byrne and Brian Eno's reissued album My Life in the Bush of Ghosts, under Creative Commons license allowing remixes).
308. Creative Commons, The Sampling Licenses, http://creativecommons.org/ about/sampling (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
309. See Associated Press's YouTube Channel, http://www.youtube.com/ user/AssociatedPress (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
310. See Los Angeles Times, http://www.latimes.com (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
311. See N.Y. Times's YouTube Channel, http://youtube.com/user/ thenewyorktimes (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
312. See Wall Street Journal Video, http://online.wsj.com/public/page/ 8_000b.html (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
313. See Washington Post, Camera Works, http://www.washingtonpost.com/ wp-srv/photo/newsvideo.htm (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
314. See ESPN Video, http://sports.espn.go.com/broadband/video/ (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
315. See Yahoo! Video, http://video.yahoo.com/ (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
316. See BBC's YouTube Channel, http://www.youtube.com/user/BBC (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
317. See CBS's YouTube Channel, http://www.youtube.com/user/CBS (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
318. See FOX Broadcasting's YouTube Channel, http://youtube.com/user/ FoxBroadcasting (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
319. See NBC, Official Site, http://www.nbc.com/Video/ (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
320. See Showtime's YouTube Channel, http://www.youtube.com/user/ showtime (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
321. See Comedy Central: Exclusive Videos and Show Clips, http://www.comedycentral.com/funny_videos/index.jhtml? (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
322. See Hulu, http://www.hulu.com/ (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
323. See Polydor's YouTube Channel, http://www.youtube.com/user/polydor (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
324. See Warner Brothers Records's YouTube Channel, http://www.youtube.com/profile?user=warnerbrosrecords (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
325. See U2official's YouTube Channel, http://www.youtube.com/user/ U2official (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
326. See My Chemical Romance's YouTube Channel, http://www.youtube.com/ user/mYcheMicALroMaNcE (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
327. See TimbalandMusic's YouTube Channel, http://www.youtube.com/user/ TimbalandMusic (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
328. See Carrie Underwood's YouTube Channel, http://www.youtube.com/ user/carrieunderwood (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
329. See NBC Official Site, http://www.nbc.com/Video/ (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
330. See supra notes 163, 184-88, 192-99 and accompanying text (discussing discoveries of Esmee Denters, Ingrid Michaelson, and Terra Naomi).
331. Marianne Richmond, User Generated Content: NBC and YouTube Mash Up May Have Bonus Outcome, Less Zapping, RESONANCE PARTNERSHIP BLOG, June 26, 2006, http://www.resonancepartnership.com/2006/06/ user_generated_.html.
332. See Julian Goldsmith, Media Gurus: User-Generated Content a Big Threat, CNET NEWS, Apr. 17, 2007, http://www.news.com/2100-1026_3- 6176823.html (noting that two-thirds of media executives surveyed believed they would be able to make money out of user-generated content).
333. Dan Farber, Hollywood Execs Still Cautious About User Generated Content, BETWEEN THE LINES BLOG, ZDNET, May 2, 2007, http://blogs.zdnet.com/BTL/?p=4973.
334. One notable example: the BBC has begun a radical redesign of its entire Web site to incorporate user-generated blogs, videos, and social networking. The BBC's new design is based on three principles, "share," "find," and "play" - with the emphasis on "sharing" of content among users. See Mark Sweney, BBC Unveils Radical Revamp of Website, GUARDIAN.CO.UK, Apr. 25, 2006, http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2006/apr/25/news.media;
335. Simon Nelson, BBC Three Everywhere, BBC INTERNET BLOG, Jan. 22, 2008, http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/bbcinternet/2008/01/ bbc_three_everywhere_1.html.
336. See Goo, supra note 252.
337. Rafer Guzman, Now That's Reel Devotion: Fanboy Films Put Viewers Behind Camera to Remake Their Favorites, NEWSDAY, Feb. 21, 2008, at B4.
338. It goes beyond the scope of this Article to attempt a comprehensive survey of user-generated content online. That task would be daunting for any organization, let alone a single person, particularly given how much new UGC is created daily. Other than campaign videos prepared by the presidential candidates (which I track in detailed monthly reports online), the evidence I present consists of anecdotal but well-known examples, supplemented by a few surveys conducted by others. Future empirical studies should be made in this area.
339. See Edward Lee, Analyzing the Presidential Candidate Videos on YouTube, Jan. 9, 2008, at 5, available at http://www.scribd.com/doc/ 241079/The-Utube-Blog-study-Analyzing-the-Presidential-Candidate-Videos-on- YouTube-Aug-2007.
340. Id. at 6.
341. CNN stated: "CNN debate coverage will be made available without restrictions at the conclusion of each live debate. We believe this is good for the country and good for the electoral process. This decision will apply to all of CNN's presidential debates, beginning with the upcoming New Hampshire debates in June." Lessig Blog, Free Debates: CNN Has Announced It Will Free the Debates, http://lessig.org/blog/2007/05/free_debates_cnn_has_announced.html (May 5, 2007, 10:03 PST).
342. Lessig Blog, A Call on the RNC & DNC to Eliminate Unnecessary Regulation of Political Speech, http://lessig.org/blog/2007/04/ a_call_on_the_rnc_dnc_to_elimi.html (Apr. 25, 2008 04:08 PST).
343. Id.
344. See Vote Different, posting of ParkRidge47 to YouTube, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6h3G-lMZxjo (Mar. 5, 2007).
345. Phil de Vellis, I Made the "Vote Different" Ad, HUFFINGTON POST, Mar. 21, 2007, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/ phil-de-vellis-aka-parkridge/i-made-the-vote-differen_b_43989.html.
346. Id.
347. See Vote Different, supra note 314.
348. Amy Schatz, YouTube Fuels - and Foils - Campaigns, WALL ST. J., June 12, 2007, at A7.
349. John Edwards Feeling Pretty, posting of RogerRmjet to YouTube, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2AE847UXu3Q (Nov. 8, 2006).
350. Id.
351. See, e.g., Adam Nagourney, The Birth of the 'Breck Girl' Story Line, N.Y. TIMES.COM, Apr. 23, 2007, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/ 04/23/us/politics/23web-nagourney.html.
352. See Jake Tapper, Music Video Has a 'Crush on Obama': Risque YouTube Song Takes Obama Campaign by Surprise, ABC NEWS.COM, June 13, 2007, http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/Story?id=3275802&page=1.
353. See "I Got a Crush. . .on Obama" by Obama Girl, posting of barelypolitical to YouTube, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wKsoXHYICqU (June 13, 2007).
354. Id.
355. See "I Got a Crush. . .on Hillary" (Take That Obama Girl!), posting of davedays on YouTube, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v= jLSWudoqtWE (Jan. 13, 2008).
356. See Hott 4 Hill-She's Hott for Hillary!!, posting of Hott4Hill on YouTube, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Sudw4ghVe8 (July 2, 2007).
357. See Huckabee Girl, posting of superdeluxecomedy to YouTube, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N7xgtAWfSWM (Jan. 30, 2008).
358. Compare Elvis Presley Enters., Inc. v. Passport Video, 349 F.3d 622 (9th Cir. 2003) (unauthorized use of copyrighted footage, photographs, and music in documentary on Elvis was unlikely to be fair use), with Hofheinz v. A&E Television Networks, 146 F. Supp. 2d 442 (S.D.N.Y. 2001) (unauthorized use of twenty seconds of copyrighted movie featuring Peter Graves (excerpted from a movie trailer) was fair use in film biography on the actor), and Monster Commc'ns Inc. v. Turner Broad. Sys., Inc., 935 F. Supp. 490 (S.D.N.Y. 1996) (unauthorized use of less than two minutes of copyrighted clip of Muhammad Ali in movie biography was fair use). For further discussion, see also supra notes 180-94 and accompanying text.
359. See 17 U.S.C. § 107 (2000).
360. See Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc., 510 U.S. 569, 579 (1994) ("[T]he goal of copyright, to promote science and the arts, is generally furthered by the creation of transformative works. Such works thus lie at the heart of the fair use doctrine's guarantee of breathing space within the confines of copyright.").
361. 17 U.S.C. § 107 (fair use "for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting"); see Campbell, 510 U.S. at 580-81 (parody fair use); see also Time Inc. v. Bernard Geis Assoc., 293 F. Supp. 130, 146 (S.D.N.Y. 1968) (copying twenty-two stills from Zapruder film of Kennedy assassination was fair use in part because of "public interest in having the fullest information available on the murder of President Kennedy").
362. Campbell, 510 U.S. at 579.
363. See Virginia v. Black, 538 U.S. 343, 365 (2003); Meyer v. Grant, 486 U.S. 414, 421-22 (1988).
364. N.Y. State Bd. of Elections v. Lopez Torres, 128 S. Ct. 791, 801 (2008) (emphasis added).
365. See First Nat'l Bank of Boston v. Bellotti, 435 U.S. 765, 788-89 (1978) ("Preserving the integrity of the electoral process, preventing corruption, and 'sustain[ing] the active, alert responsibility of the individual citizen in a democracy for the wise conduct of the government' are interests of the highest importance."); see also Ark. Educ. Television Comm'n v. Forbes, 523 U.S. 666, 692-93 (1998) (Souter, J., dissenting) ("Given the special character of political speech, particularly during campaigns for elected office, the debate forum implicates constitutional concerns of the highest order, as the majority acknowledges.").
366. Harper & Row Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enters., 471 U.S. 539, 560 (1985).
367. Campbell, 510 U.S. at 577.
368. Id. at 586-87.
369. See Jim Rutenberg, Fox Orders Halt to McCain Ad, N.Y. TIMES POL. BLOG, Oct. 25, 2007, http://thecaucus. blogs.nytimes.com/2007/10/25/fox-orders-halt-to-mccain-ad/;
370. Jason Linkins, Fox News: Romney Is Violating Copyright Law, "We Will Respond," HUFFINGTON POST, Nov. 2, 2007, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2007/11/02/fox-news-romney-is-viola_n_70929.html.
371. See Janet Kornblum, Mashups Add Splice to Movies, USA TODAY.COM, Jan. 22, 2007, http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2007-01-22- trailer-mashups_x.htm;
372. The Original Scary 'Mary Poppins' Recut Trailer, supra note 247.
373. See The Original Scary 'Mary Poppins' Recut Trailer, supra note 247.
374. See The Shining Cut, posting of neochosen to YouTube, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KmkVWuP_sO0 (Feb. 7, 2006).
375. See Brokeback to the Future, posting of orangeohm to YouTube, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zfODSPIYwpQ (Feb. 1, 2006).
376. Kornblum, supra note 340.
377. See The Trailer Mash, http://www.thetrailermash.com/ (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
378. See supra notes 218-23 and accompanying text.
379. See Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc., 507 U.S. 569, 588-89 (1993).
380. See Meredith McCardle, Note, Fan Fiction, Fandom and Fanfare: What's All the Fuss?. 9 B.U. J. SCI. & TECH. L. 433, 440 (2003).
381. Id. at 453.
382. See FanFiction.net, http://www.fanfiction.net (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
383. McCardle, supra note 348, at 453.
384. See, e.g., Anupam Chander & Madhavi Sunder, Everyone's a Superhero: A Cultural Theory of "Mary Sue" Fan Fiction as Fair Use, 95 CAL. L. REV. 597 (2007); Katyal, supra note 37;
385. Leanne Stendell, Fanfic and Fan Fact: How Current Copyright Law Ignores the Reality of Copyright Owner and Consumer Interests in Fan Fiction, 58 SMU L. REV. 1551 (2005);
386. Rebecca Tushnet, Legal Fictions: Copyright, Fan Fiction, and a New Common Law, 17 LOY. L.A. ENT. L. REV. 651 (1997);
387. Mollie E. Nolan, Comment, Search for Original Expression: Fan Fiction and the Fair Use Defense, 30 S. ILL. U. L.J. 533 (2006).
388. See 17 U.S.C. § 107 (2000).
389. See, e.g., Chander & Sunder, supra note 352, at 612-20; Tushnet, supra note 352, at 664-81.
390. SunTrust Bank v. Houghton Mifflin Co., 268 F.3d 1257, 1268-69 (11th Cir. 2001); cf. Walt Disney Prods, v. Air Pirates, 581 F.2d 751, 757-58 (9th Cir. 1978) (unauthorized use of Disney characters in "counter-culture" comic books was not a parody fair use because defendant took too much Disney content).
391. See supra note 353 and accompanying text.
392. See Jacqueline Lai Chung, Note, Drawing Idea from Expression: Creating a Legal Space for Culturally Appropriated Literary Characters, 49 WM. & MARY L. REV. 903, 938 (2007);
393. see also Leslie A. Kurtz, The Methuselah Factor: When Characters Outlive Their Copyrights, 11 U. MIAMI ENT. & SPORTS L. REV. 437 (1994);
394. Michael Todd Helfand, Note, When Mickey Mouse Is as Strong as Superman: The Convergence of Intellectual Property Laws to Protect Fictional, Literary, and Pictorial Characters, 44 STAN. L. REV. 623 (1992).
395. But cf. Justin Hughes, "Receding" Intellectual Property and Overlooked Audience Interests, 77 TEX. L. REV. 923, 940-66 (1999) (suggesting justifications for protecting "cultural objects" with copyright).
396. See FanFiction.net, Books, http://www.fanfiction.net/book/ (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
397. See Ariana Eunjung Cha, Harry Potter and the Copyright Lawyer; Use of Popular Characters Puts 'Fan Fiction' Writers in Gray Area, WASH. POST, June 18, 2003, at A1;
398. Stopping the Presses on a Potter Book, N.Y. TIMES, Nov. 10, 2007, at B8;
399. Darren Waters, Rowling Backs Potter Fan Fiction, BBC, May 27, 2004, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/arts/3753001.stm.
400. Katyal, supra note 37, at 516.
401. AnneRice.com: Messages to Anne Rice Fans, http://www.annerice.com/ ReaderInteractionMessagesToFans.html (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
402. See Nolan, supra note 352, at 556-57.
403. Id.
404. Katyal, supra note 37, at 511-12.
405. For the similarities between Lucas's work and other works, see Jon Casimir, Star Wars Crib Notes, SYDNEY MORNING HERALD, May 11, 2002, http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/05/10/ 1021002387791.html;
406. Ridwan Khan, The Bushido of Star Wars, ANIME FRINGE, June 2004, http://www.animefringe.com/magazine/2004/06/feature/ 04.php.
407. Katyal, supra note 37, at 499.
408. Cha, supra note 359.
409. See Nolan, supra note 352, at 557.
410. See Katyal, supra note 37, at 515.
411. Id.
412. Id.
413. Id.
414. Grey's Anatomy Music Video Breathe Anna Nalick (Complete), posting of ElleBrand to YouTube, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CP5mFTq6vv0 (Nov. 5, 2006).
415. See YouTube, "No Copyright Infringement Intended" Video Search Results, http://www.youtube.com/results?search_query= no+copyright+infringement+intended (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
416. See NoHomers.net, Your Daily Dose of The Simpsons, http://www.nohomers.net/index.shtml (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
417. See NoHomers.net, Simpsons Image Gallery: The Simpson Family, http://www.nohomers.net/content/gallery/family/ (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
418. Id.
419. See Erin Holmes & Edward Lee, The Simpsons Fan Websites Chart, Mar. 1, 2008 (on file with the University of Illinois Law Review).
420. See The Simpsons Directory, http://www.simponsdirectory.com (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
421. See Holmes & Lee, supra note 378.
422. See, e.g., Last Exit to Springfield, http://www.lardlad.com (last visited Aug. 11, 2008) ("Last Exit to Springfield © 1997-2007");
423. Simpsons Channel, http://www.simpsonschannel.com (last visited Aug. 11, 2008) ("This is an unofficial website owned and maintained by Adam Wolf, 1997-2008").
424. See Rickey.org, February 2004, http://www.rickey.org/?m=200402 (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
425. See Rickey.org - American Idol 24/7, http://www.rickey.org (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
426. See id.
427. See, e.g., Danny Noriega's American Idol Audition, http://www.rickey.org/?p=6991#more-6991 (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
428. See Rickey.org, supra note 383.
429. See id.
430. See id. (under heading "About" at bottom of page).
431. See Erin Holmes & Edward Lee, American Idol Fan Websites Chart, Mar. 1, 2008 (on file with the University of Illinois Law Review).
432. Compare Religious Tech. Ctr. v. Netcom On-Line Commc'ns Inc., 923 F. Supp. 1231, 1256 (N.D. Cal. 1995) (posting copyrighted materials of Scientology was not transformative where defendant added little or no criticism), with Religious Tech. Ctr. v. F.A.C.T. Net, Inc., 901 F. Supp. 1519, 1525 (D. Colo. 1995) (likely fair use for Web site opposing Scientology in creating electronic database of Scientology writings to criticize them).
433. See supra notes 280-300 and accompanying text. FOX has allowed embeddable videos from The Simpsons at hulu.com.
434. Cecilia Ogbu, Note, I Put up a Website About My Favorite Show and All I Got Was This Lousy Cease-and-Desist Letter: The Intersection of Fan Sites, Internet Culture, and Copyright Owners, 12 S. CAL. INTERDISC. L.J. 279, 285 (2003).
435. For example, a photo agency sued gossip blogger Perez Hilton for allegedly using its copyrighted images on his blog without permission. See Robin Abcarian, Perez Hilton Takes Their Best Shots, L.A. TIMES, Dec. 17, 2006, at A1.
436. For example, one could peruse some recent copyright articles. See, e.g., Oren Bracha, Standing Copyright Law on Its Head? The Googlization of Everything and the Many Faces of Property, 85 TEX L. REV. 1799 (2007) (analyzing "opt out" position for digital libraries and recommending fair use and statutory solutions);
437. Justin Hughes, Created Facts and the Flawed Ontology of Copyright Law, 83 NOTRE DAME L. REV. 43 (2007) (arguing for recalibration of merger doctrine).
438. See, e.g., Carroll, supra note 53, at 1123-41; Liu, supra note 52, at 150-51.
439. See, e.g., Niva Elkin-Koren, What Contracts Cannot Do: The Limits of Private Ordering in Facilitating a Creative Commons, 74 FORDHAM L. REV. 375 (2005); Loren, supra note 102, at 271;
440. Viva R. Moffat, Super-Copyright: Contracts, Preemption, and the Structure of Copyright Policymaking, 41 U.C. DAVIS L. REV. 45 (2007).
441. See 26 U.S.C. § 63(c) (2000).
442. See LANDES & POSNER, supra note 125, at 408; Jessica Litman, Copyright, Compromise, and Legislative History, 72 CORNELL L. REV. 857, 862 (1987). As the Supreme Court has described, the 1976 Copyright Act "was the product of two decades of negotiation by representatives of creators and copyright-using industries, supervised by the Copyright Office and, to a lesser extent, by Congress." Cmty. for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730, 743 (1989).
443. Daniel Gould, Time's Up: Copyright Termination, Work-for-Hire and the Recording Industry, 31 COLUM. J.L. & ARTS 91, 96-97 (2007); see also Staggers v. Real Authentic Sound, 77 F. Supp. 2d 57, 64 (D.D.C. 1999).
444. See Michael W. Carroll, Creative Commons and the New Intermediaries, 2006 MICH. ST. L. REV. 45.
445. Nearly 149 million Creative Commons licenses exist. See supra note 98 and accompanying text.
446. Cf. Carroll, supra note 400, at 46 ("For the time being, a number of implicit understandings have grown up around digital technologies, and these understandings have led to norms and implied licenses that serve important coordinating functions. As robust as these informal mechanisms are, however, greater clarity and coordination can often be had when copyright owners explicitly designate which copyright events they consider to be permissible.").
447. Cf. Katyal, supra note 37, at 465 (discussing exclusion of minorities and women in copyright industries).
448. See 17 U.S.C. § 1201 (2000).
449. See Steve Jobs, Thoughts on Music, APPLE, Feb. 6, 2007, http://www.apple.com/hotnews/thoughtsonmusic/;
450. Erick Schonfeld, Amazon Adds Warner Music to DRM-Free Roster, TECHCRUNCH, Dec. 27, 2007, http://www.techcrunch.com/2007/12/ 27/amazon-adds-warner-music-to-drm-free-roster/.
451. See Brad Stone, Publishers Phase Out Piracy Protection on Audio Books, N.Y. TIMES, Mar. 3, 2008, at C2.
452. Cohen, supra note 36, at 347.
453. See Litman, supra note 12, at 23.
454. See Moffat, supra note 396, at 50-51.
455. See, e.g., Emily Meyers, Art on Ice: The Chilling Effect of Copyright on Artistic Expression, 30 COLUM. J.L. & ARTS 219 (2007); Tushnet, supra note 182, at 582;
456. Jennifer M. Urban & Laura Quilter, Efficient Process of "Chilling Effects"? Takedown Notices Under Section 512 of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, 22 SANTA CLARA COMPUTER & HIGH TECH. L.J. 621 (2006);
457. Rachael Braswell, Note, Consumer Gripe Sites, Intellectual Property Law, and the Use of Cease-and-Desist Letters to Chill Protected Speech on the Internet, 17 FORDHAM INTELL. PROP. MEDIA & ENT. L.J. 1241 (2007);
458. Derek J. Schaffner, Note, The Digital Millennium Copyright Act: Overextension of Copyright Protection and Unintended Chilling Effects on Fair Use, Free Speech, and Innovation, 14 CORNELL J.L. & PUB. POL'Y 145, 163 (2005).
459. See Chilling Effects Clearinghouse, http://www.chillingeffects.org (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
460. See Chilling Effects Clearinghouse, Cease and Desist Notices: Copyright, http://www.chillingeffects.org/copyright/notice.cgi (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
461. See Chilling Effects Clearinghouse, supra note 411.
462. Urban & Quilter, supra note 410, at 667. The MIT Free Culture group tracks on its Web site 238,322 videos in YouTube to see how many are removed for alleged copyright violations. YouTomb, http://youtomb.mit.edu (last visited Aug. 11, 2008). As of August 2008, the Web site identified 8,129 such videos removed from YouTube. YouTomb, Statistics, http://youtomb.mit.edu/ statistics/ (last visited Aug. 11, 2008).
463. Carroll, supra note 53, at 1148 ("Copyright law must respond to the rise of copyright owner aggression and its chilling effects and respond to increasing uncertainty surrounding uses of new technologies by providing greater ex ante certainty about the scope of fair use or by reducing the risks of relying on fair use through ex post relief.").
464. LAWRENCE LESSIG, FREE CULTURE 187 (2004).
465. See Lee, supra note 175, at 50-51; Lee, supra note 92, at 1313.
466. In legal scholarship, the term "warming" or "warming effect" has apparently been used only once before to describe the opposite effect to the chilling of speech. See Thomas W. Hazlett & David W. Sosa, "Chilling" the Internet? Lessons from FCC Regulation of Radio Broadcasting, 4 MICH. TELECOMM. & TECH. L. REV. 35, 43 (1998). I have not seen the term used formally in copyright scholarship.
467. Cf. Marsha Garrison, The Decline of Formal Marriage: Inevitable or Reversible?, 41 FAM. L.Q. 491, 514-16 (2007) (discussing bandwagon effects).
468. Id. (quoting TIMUR KURAN, PRIVATE TRUTHS, PUBLIC LIES: THE SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES OF PREFERENCE FALSIFICATION 69-82 (1995)) (internal quotations omitted).
469. See JEFFREY H. ROHLFS, BANDWAGON EFFECTS IN HIGH-TECHNOLOGY INDUSTRIES 5 (2001) ("The largest and most successful bandwagon, apart from the telephone, has been the Internet . . . . Perhaps most important, the Internet serves as a vast resource to facilitate free speech and free expression across the globe.").
470. See sources cited supra note 410 and accompanying text.
471. Katyal, supra note 37, at 517; see also STUART BIEGEL, BEYOND OUR CONTROL?: CONFRONTING THE LIMITS OF OUR LEGAL SYSTEM IN THE AGE OF CYBERSPACE 74 (2001) (noting the inability of the average Netizen to understand the complexities of intellectual property law combined with the ease of use and the strong prevailing social norms that support widespread and indiscriminate copying).
472. See Katyal, supra note 37, at 468.
473. Id. at 469-70.
474. See Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc., 570 U.S. 569, 584 (1994).
475. One typical response comes from Jeffrey Ulin of Lucasfilm, who remarked, "If fans are using Star Wars material for fun, that's one thing. If someone tries to commercialize it, that's where we've drawn the line." McBride, supra note 256.
476. See Dan Hunter & F. Gregory Lastowka, Amateur-to- Amateur, 46 WM. & MARY L. REV. 951, 1018-30 (2004) (discussing the need to amend copyright law to foster amateur creations).
477. Cf. Steve Silberman, The War Against Fandom, WIRED.COM, June 4, 1997, http://www.wired.com/culture/lifestyle/news/ 1997/06/4231.