Are enhanced trade and enhanced security mutually exclusive? The Western Canada-U.S. borderland in post-9/11 world

American Review of Canadian Studies

Volumn 38, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 317-340

  Bradbury, Susan L ^a   Turbeville III, Daniel E ^b  

^a IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b EASTERN WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BORDER REGION; FREE TRADE; NAFTA; NATIONAL SECURITY; SECURITY THREAT; TERRORISM; TRADE AGREEMENT; TRADE FLOW; TRADE PERFORMANCE; TRADE REFORM; TRADE RELATIONS;

CANADA; NORTH AMERICA; UNITED STATES;

EID: 55149120992     PISSN: 02722011     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/02722010809481717     Document Type: Article

References (95)

1. Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, "Canada /United States of America Accord on Our Shared Border" (Ottawa, 1996), http://www.defait-maeci.gc.ca/english/geo/usa/border-e.htm (accessed July 18, 2005).
2. Daniel Drache, Borders Matter: Homeland Security and the Search for North America (Halifax: Fernwood Publishing, 2004).
3. See Fraser Institute, "The Fraser Institute's Annual Survey of Canadian Exporters: Growing Concerns About Protectionist Sentiment in the United States" (The Fraser Institute, 2004), http:/ /fraserinsfitute.ca/shared/readmore.asp?s=pb&id=712 (accessed February 20, 2008);
4. Ontario Chamber of Commerce, "Cost of Border Delays to Ontario" (Ontario Chamber of Commerce, 2004), http://www.occ.on.ca/members/ 2committe/borders/related_documents/CostsofBorderDelays.pdf (accessed February 20, 2008);
5. D. MacPherson, James E. McConnell, Annelise Vance, and Vida Vanchan, "The Impact of U.S. Antiterrorism Policies on Canada-U.S. Cross Border Commerce: An Exploratory Study from Western New York and Southern Ontario," The Professional Geographer 58 (August 2006): 266-277.
6. See Ontario Chamber of Commerce, "Cost of Border Delays to Ontario," and MacPherson, McConnell, Vance, and Vanchan, "The Impact of U.S. Antiterrorism Policies on Canada-U.S. Cross Border Commerce," note 3.
7. Also see Ontario Chamber of Commerce, "Border Policies 2007-2008" (Ontario Chamber of Commerce, 2007), http://occ.on.ca /Policy/Reports/330 (accessed February 20, 2008).
8. As this discussion shows, there are two Blaine WA-Douglas BC crossings. We will use the terms Pacific Highway (truck crossing) and Peach Arch (passenger vehicle crossing) to distinguish between them.
9. See Fraser Institute, "The Fraser Institute's Annual Survey of Canadian Exporters," and MacPherson, McConnell, Vance, and Vanchan, "The Impact of U.S. Antiterrorism Policies on Canada-U.S. Cross Border Commerce," note 3.
10. Robert Yin, Case Study Research: Design and Methods (Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 2003), 13.
11. John W Creswell, Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches. (Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 2003);
12. Yin, Case Study Research: Desikn and Methods, note 6.
13. See Daniel E. Turbeville III and Susan L. Bradbury, "From Fur Trade to Free Trade: Rethinking the Inland Empire," American Review of Canadian Studies (Autumn 1999): 447-471;
14. and Susan L. Bradbury and Daniel E. Turbeville III, "Washington-British Columbia Border Towns Since NAYTA: Communities in Transition," Current Municipal Problems 25, 1 (1998): 39-48.
15. Barton-Aschman and La Empresa, Binational Border Transportation Planning and Programming Study (Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, 1998);
16. Whatcom County Council of Governments, "Border System Study, Phase II" (Bellingham, 1999);
17. and Susan L. Bradbury, "Planning Transportation Corridors in Post-NAFTA North America," Journal of the American Planning Association 68 (Spring 2002): 137-150.
18. The $700 million was allocated to two programs within TEA-21: the National Corridor Planning and Development Program and the Corridor Border Infrastructure Program.
19. Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada, "State of Trade, 2002" (Ottawa, 2003), http://www.international.gc.ca/eet/pdf/ ANNEXTABLEStateofTrade2002RevJuno2-en.pdf (accessed February 27, 2008).
20. See Coalition for Secure and Trade-Efficient Borders, "Rethinking Our Borders: A Statement of Principles," http://www.cme-mec.ca/pdf/ bordercoalition.pdf (accessed January 18, 2008);
21. Geoffrey E. Hale, "Innovation and Inclusion: Budget Policy, the Skills Agenda, and the Politics of the New Economy," in G. Bruce Doern, ed., How Ottawa Spends 2002-2003 (Don Mills: Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 20-47;
22. Maureen Appel Molot, "The Trade-Security Nexus: The New Reality in Canada-U.S. Economic Integration," American Review of Canadian Studies (Spring 2003): 27-62,
23. and Senate of Canada, "Borderline Insecure" (Interim Report by the Senate Committee on National Security and Defence, 2005), http:// parl.gc.ca/38/lparlbus/commbus/senate/com-e/defe-e/rep-e/ reprintjun05-e.pdf (accessed August 8, 2006).
24. The Adjutant General of the Washington Military Department at Camp Murray (Fort Lewis), Washington, has a responsibility to the Department of Homeland Security to work cooperatively with civilian law enforcement agencies at the border.
25. Canadian Border Services Agency, "Fact Sheet: Arming of CBSA Officers" (Ottawa, 2007), http://www.cbsa-asfc.gc.ca/media /facts-faits/063-eng.html (accessed March 2, 2008).
26. Government of Canada, "Smart Border Declaration" (Ottawa, 2001), http://geo.international.gc.ca/world/site/includes/ print.asp?lang=en&print=1&url=%'2Fcan%2Dam%Fm (accessed March 16, 2007).
27. United States Customs and Border Protection, "Securing the Global Supply Chain: Customs-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism (C-TPAT) Strategic Plan" (Washington, D.C., 2004).
28. Companies applying for C-TPAT must provide the U.S. CBPAith a sample of previously completed purchases that document their supply chain. These samples must be validated by the CBP to be accurate.
29. United States Customs and Border Protection, "Customs-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism (C-TPAT) Fact Sheet" (Washington, D.C., 2007), http://www.cbp.gov/linkhandler/cgov/newsroom/fact_sheet /port_security/ctpat.ctt/ctpat.pdf (accessed June 28, 2007).
30. Canada Border Services Agency, "Partners in Protection" (Ottawa, 2007), http://www.cbsa-asfc.gc.ca/media/facts-faits/048-eng.html (accessed January 28, 2008).
31. Canadian Border Services Agency, "Partners in Protection - Members List" (Ottawa, 2008), http://www.cbsa.gc.ca/security-securite /pip-pep/list-liste-eng.html (accessed February 27, 2008).
32. United States Customs and Border Protection, "FAST Reference Guide" (Washington, D.C., 2005), http://www.cbp.gov/linkhandler /cgov/import/commercial_enforcement/ctpat/fast/fast_ref_guide.ctt /fast_ref_guide.pdf (June 28, 2007).
33. United States Customs and Border Protection, "FAST Fact Sheet" (Washington ac., 2007), http://www.cbp.gov/linkhandler/cgov/newroom/ fact_sheets/travel/fast_fact.ctt/fast_fact.pdf (accessed January 28, 2008).
34. United States Customs and Border Protection, "NEXUS: A Binational Trusted Traveler Program Fact Sheet" (Washington, D.C., 2007), http://www.cbp.gov/linkhandler/cgov/news-room/fact_sheets/travel /nexus_fact.ctt/nexus_fact.pdf (accessed June 28, 2007).
35. United States Department of Homeland Security, "Fact Sheet: Securing Our Nation's Borders" (Washington, D.C., 2006), http://www.dhs.gov/ xnews/releases/press_release_0938.shtm (accessed January 28, 2008).
36. Office of the Prime Minister, "Prime Minister Harper Announced Initiatives to Improve Canada's Border Security" (Ottawa, 2006), http://www.pm.gc.ca/includes/send_friend_eMail_print.asp?URL=/eng/ media.asp&category=l&id=1302 (accessed March 16, 2007),
37. and Canadian Border Services Agency, "Fact Sheet: Arming of CBSA Officers," note 13.
38. For instance, in Canada the Border Infrastructure Fund (BIF) was introduced and consists of $600 million to support initiatives contained within the Smart Border Accord Action Plan.
39. See Fraser Institute, "The Fraser Institute's Annual Survey of Canadian Exporters," and Ontario Chamber of Commerce, "Cost of Border Delays to Ontario," note 3.
40. Also see Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, "NAFFA 10: A Preliminary Report" (Ottawa, 2004), http:/ /www.dfait-macci.gc/eet/research/nafta/nafta-en.asp (accessed July 22, 2005).
41. Delays at the border have been estimated to cost the Canadian and U.S. economies over $13.6 billion (CND) annually according to Ontario Chamber of Commerce, "Cost of Border Delays to Ontario," note 3.
42. For details about border inefficiencies and costs associated with crossing the border, see Coalition for Secure and Trade-Efficient Borders, "Rethinking Our Borders: A New North American Partnership" (Coalition for Secure and Trade-Efficient Borders, 2005), http://www.cme-rnec.ca/pdf/Coalitioii_Repor_t0705_Final.pdf (accessed January 18, 2008);
43. John C. Taylor, Douglas R. Robideaux, and George C. Jackson, "U.S.-Canada Transportation and Logistics: Border Impacts and Costs, Causes, and Possible Solutions," Transportation Journal 43 (Fall 2004): 5-21;
44. Ontario Chamber of Commerce, "Easing the &kepoints: A Plan for an Efficient Canada-U.S. Border" (Ontario Chamber of Commerce, 2007), http://www.occ.on.ca/Policy/Reports/340 (accessed February 20, 2008),
45. and Whatcom Council of Governments, "International Mobility & Trade Corridor Project 2006 Resource Manual" (Bellingham, 2006), http://ww-w.wcog.org/library/imtc/2006webmanual (accessed August 9, 2007).
46. Also see Senate of Canada, "Borderline Insecure," note 11, and MacPherson, McConnell, Vance, and Vanchan, "The Impact of U.S. Antiterrorism Policies on Canada-U.S. Cross Border Commerce," note 3.
47. Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, "NAFTA 10," note 25.
48. Ibid.
49. See Peter C. Newman, The Canadian Revolution 1985-1995: From Deference to Defiance (Toronto: Penguin Books, 1995);
50. Daniel E. Turbevilie III and Susan L. Bradbury, "From Fur Trade to Free Trade: Rethinking the Inland Empire," note 8;
51. Francine Roy, "Cross-border Shopping and the Loonie: Not What It Used to Be," Canadian Economic Observer (December 2007): 3.1-3.13.
52. Roy, "Cross-border Shopping and the Loonie," note 29,
53. and Susan L. Bradbury and Daniel E. Turbeville III, "From NAFTN to 9/11: The Dilemma of Inland Northwest Border Towns," in Dick Winchell, ed., Geographical Perspectives on the Inland Northwest: A Regional Exploration and Field Guide (Spokane: Eastern Washington University Press, 2008).
54. Canadian Border Services Agency, "Fact Sheet: Arming of CBSA Officers," note 13.
55. United States Customs and Border Protection, "Customs and Border Protection TODAY Watching the Northern Line" (Washington, D.C., 2003), http://www.cbp.gov/xp/CustomsToday/2003/august/cameras.xml (accessed January 28, 2008).
56. United States Department of Homeland Security, "Fact Sheet: Strengthening Border Security and Facilitating Entry into the United States" (Washington, D.C., 2007), http://www.dhs.gov/xnews/releases/ pr_1182351923729.ahtm (accessedJune 26, 2007).
57. Approximately 41 percent of Canadians have a passport, while only 34 percent of Americans have one, according to the Conference Board of Canada, "An Update on the Potential Impact of the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative on Canada's Tourism Industry" (Ottawa, 2006), http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/epic/site/dsib-tour.nsf/en/h_qq00117e.html (accessed March 28, 2008).
58. Also at issue is the cost associated with the passports. In Canada a passport costs $87 and is valid for 5 years. In the United States a passport costs $100 for first-time applicants and is valid for 10 years. For a family wishing to travel periodically within North America, this is a considerable expense.
59. For instance, some states, including Washington, have created an Enhanced Driver License program that will satisfy this requirement. In addition, the U.S. State Department is testing a secure identification card (officially called a Passport Card) that will meet WHTI requirements. Applications for these opened on February 1, 2008, and the first cards will be sent out in the spring of this year. See U.S. Department of State, "U.S. Passport Cards" (Washington, D.C., 2008), http://travel.state.gov/passport/ppt_card_3926.html (accessed February 25, 2008).
60. See Ontario Chamber of Commerce, "Cost of Border Delays to Ontario," note 3;
61. Ontario Chamber of Commerce, "Easing the Chokepoints," note 26;
62. and Conference Board of Canada, "An Update on the Potential Impact of the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative on Canada's Tourism Industry," note 34.
63. Office of the Prime Minister, "Prime Minister Harper Announced, Initiatives to Improve Canada's Border Security," note 23.
64. The use of electronic manifests was mandated for all cargo crossing into Washington state as of January 2007.
65. United States Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, U.S. Border Gossing/Entry Data (Washington, D.C., 2006).
66. United States Department of Agriculture, "Canada Livestock and Products, 2005" (U.S. Foreign Agricultural Service Gain Report CA5056, 2005),
67. http://www.fas.usda.gov/gainfiles/200508/146130675.pdf (accessed March 2, 2008).
68. United States Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, U.S. Border Crossing/Entg Data (Washington, D.C., 2006).
69. Ibid.
70. It should be noted that Sumas-Hunfingdon did reconfigure the approaches for commercial trucks, separating trucks from both north- and southbound automobile traffic in early 2005.
71. For Lynden-Aidergrove, the amount of truck traffic increased from approximately 5 percent in 2000 to nearly 7.5 percent in 2006, and for Sumas-Huntingdon from approximately 15 percent in 2000 to over 21 percent in 2006.
72. Border wait times are collected and reported by both CBSA and U.S. CBP, and refer to the estimated wait times for reaching the primary inspection booth when crossing the Canadian/U.S. land border. The border wait time data utilized in this article is from CBSA.
73. Canadian Border Services Agency, Average Border Wait Times (Ottawa, 2007).
74. See the report produced by Halcrow Consulting, Inc., for the Whatcom Council of Governments. The study conducted a survey of commercial vehicle operations at the Pacific Highway port in the summer of 2006. See Halcrow Consulting, Inc., "International Mobility & Trade Corridor Project: Pacific Highway Port-of-Entry Commercial Vehicle Operations Survey Final Report" (Burnaby, 2007),
75. http://www.wcog.org/library/imtc/2007cvo_finalreport.pdf (accessed January 26, 2008). Also note that processing time refers to the amount of time it takes to process and clear a vehicle once it has reached the primary inspection booth.
76. Ibid.
77. Canadian Border Services Agency, Average Border Wait Times, note 45.
78. David Bradley, "Canadian Trucking Alliance News Release November 1, 2004" (Ottawa, 2004),
79. http://www.cantr-uck.com/riews/news/2004/041101.htm (accessed February 23, 2008).
80. Fifty-five percent of Ontario Chamber of Commerce members do not participate in FAST, NEXUS, or C-TPAT, with 34 percent responding that it was because they received no benefits from the programs. See Ontario Chamber of Commerce, "Easing the Chokepoints," note 26,
81. and Ontario Chamber of Commerce, 2006 Borders Survg (Toronto, 2006).
82. Also see Abdoulayr Diop, David Hartman, and Deborah Rexrode, "C-TPAT Cost/Benefit Survey" (Charlottesville, VA: Weldon Cooper Center for Public Service, University of Virginia, 2007).
83. Diop, Hartman, and Rexrode, "C-TPAT Cost/Benefit Survey," note 50.
84. See Ontario Chamber of Commerce, "Easing the Chokepoints," note 26, and Ontario Chamber of Commerce, "2006 Border Survey," note 50.
85. Also see American Trucking Association, "Statement of Kenneth W. Staub, Jr., to the U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Small Business" (Alexandria, VA, 2005), http://www.truckline.com/NR /rdonlyres/686F3B42-CE44-4417-B683-A756D3FA8023/0/Passports1105.pdf (accessed February 18, 2008).
86. Canadian Trucking Alliance, "News Release November 29, 2007" (Ottawa, 2007), http://www.cantruck.com/news/news/2007/ ctapr_2007_11_29_100242».php3 (accessed February 23, 2008),
87. and Global Insight, Inc., "The U.S. Truck Driver Shortage: Analysis and Forecasts" (American Trucking Alliance, 2005), http:/ /truckline.com/NR/rdonlyres/E2E789CF-F308463F-8831-0F7E283A0218/0/ ATADriverShortageStudy05.pdf (accessed February 18, 2008).
88. Because FAST is a joint Canadian Border Services Agency (CBSA) and U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) program, there are two background checks conducted: one by CBSA and the other by CBP
89. Canadian Trucking Alliance, "CSA/FAST Bulletinjune 2, 2003" (Ottawa, 2003), http://www.cantruck.com/news/news/2003/fast.pdf (accessed February 23, 2008).
90. See Global Insight, Inc., "The U.S. Truck Driver Shortage," note 53, and Ontario Chamber of Commerce, "Easing the Chokepoints," note 26.
91. Also see Gary Nichols (Contract Freighter, Inc.), comments made at the Transportation Research Board Conference, January 13, 2004.
92. Ontario Chamber of Commerce, "Easing the Chokepoints," note 26.
93. American Trucking Association, "Statement of Kenneth W Staub, Jr., to the U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Small Business," note 52.
94. Michael Hart, "Steer or Drift? Taking Charge of Canada-U.S. Regulatory Convergence," C D. Howe Institute Commentary 229 (March 2006), http://www.cdhowe.org/pdf/commentary-229.pdf (accessed February 27, 2008).
95. Diop, Hartman, and Rexrode, "C-TPAT Cost/Benefit Survey," note 50.