Are children just small adults? The differences between paediatric and adult sleep medicine

Internal Medicine Journal

Volumn 38, Issue 9, 2008, Pages 719-731

  Robinson, P D ^a,b   Waters, K ^a,b  

^a CHILDREN S HOSPITAL AT WESTMEAD   (Australia)

^b University of Sydney   (Australia)

Author keywords

Adult; Growth and development; Paediatrics; Physiology; Sleep

Indexed keywords

ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; BENZODIAZEPINE RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; CLONAZEPAM; DEXAMETHASONE; FLUTICASONE; HYPNOTIC AGENT; LEUKOTRIENE; LEUKOTRIENE RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; MELATONIN; METHYLPHENIDATE; MODAFINIL; MONTELUKAST; PSYCHOTROPIC AGENT; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; STEROID; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT;

ADENOTONSILLECTOMY; BEHAVIOR THERAPY; CATAPLEXY; CHILD PARENT RELATION; CIRCADIAN RHYTHM; CLINICAL TRIAL; CRANIOFACIAL MALFORMATION; DAYTIME SOMNOLENCE; DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE; DISEASE SEVERITY; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY; ELECTROMYOGRAPHY; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; INSOMNIA; MATURATION; NARCOLEPSY; NIGHT SLEEP; NONREM SLEEP; OXYGEN THERAPY; PARASOMNIA; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; POLYSOMNOGRAPHY; POSITIVE END EXPIRATORY PRESSURE; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; REM SLEEP; RESPIRATION CONTROL; REVIEW; SLEEP; SLEEP APNEA SYNDROME; SLEEP DISORDER; SLEEP DISORDERED BREATHING; SLEEP PATTERN; SLEEP TIME; SLEEP WAKING CYCLE; SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME; TONSILLECTOMY;

ADULT; AGE FACTORS; CHILD; HUMANS; HYPNOTICS AND SEDATIVES; POLYSOMNOGRAPHY; RISK FACTORS; SLEEP; SLEEP DISORDERS;

EID: 54949153689     PISSN: 14440903     EISSN: 14455994     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1445-5994.2008.01719.x     Document Type: Review

References (127)

1. So K, Adamson TM, Horne RS. The use of actigraphy for assessment of the development of sleep/wake patterns in infants during the first 12 months of life. J Sleep Res 2007 16 : 181 7.
2. Coons S. Development of sleep and wakefulness during the first six months of life. In : Guilleminault C, ed. Sleep and its Disorders in Children. New York : Raven Press 1987 17 27.
3. Goodlin-Jones BL, Burnham MM, Gaylor EE, Anders TF. Night waking, sleep-wake organization, and self-soothing in the first year of life. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2001 22 : 226 33.
4. Mazza M, Faia V, Paciello N, Della MG, Mazza S. Sleep disorders in childhood: a review. Clin Ter 2002 153 : 189 93.
5. Givan DC. The sleepy child. Pediatr Clin North Am 2004 51 : 15 31.
6. Glaze DJ, Rosen CL, Owens JA. Toward a practical definition of pediatric insomnia. Curr Ther Res Clin Exp 2002 63 Suppl B : B4 17.
7. Wolkove N, Elkholy O, Baltzan M, Palayew M. Sleep and aging: 1. Sleep disorders commonly found in older people. CMAJ 2007 176 : 1299 304.
8. Waters KA, Gozal D. Responses to hypoxia during early development. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2003 136 : 115 29.
9. Horne RS, Parslow PM, Harding R. Postnatal development of ventilatory and arousal responses to hypoxia in human infants. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2005 149 : 257 71.
10. Richardson HL, Parslow PM, Walker AM, Harding R, Horne RS. Maturation of the initial ventilatory response to hypoxia in sleeping infants. J Sleep Res 2007 16 : 117 27.
11. Parks YA, Beardsmore CS, MacFadyen UM, Pallot DJ, Goodenough PC, Carpenter R et al. The effect of a single breath of 100% oxygen on breathing in infants at 1, 2, and 3 months of age. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991 144 : 141 5.
12. Gozal D. New concepts in abnormalities of respiratory control in children. Curr Opin Pediatr 2004 16 : 305 8.
13. Mishra S, Agarwal R, Jeevasankar M, Aggarwal R, Deorari AK, Paul VK. Apnea in the newborn. Indian J Pediatr 2008 75 : 57 61.
14. Thach BT. Maturation and transformation of reflexes that protect the laryngeal airway from liquid aspiration from fetal to adult life. Am J Med 2001 111 Suppl 8A : S69S 77.
15. Ramanathan R, Corwin MJ, Hunt CE, Lister G, Tinsley LR, Baird T et al. Cardiorespiratory events recorded on home monitors: Comparison of healthy infants with those at increased risk for SIDS. JAMA 2001 285 : 2199 207.
16. Eckert DJ, Jordan AS, Merchia P, Malhotra A. Central sleep apnea: pathophysiology and treatment. Chest 2007 131 : 595 607.
17. Launois SH, Pepin JL, Levy P. Sleep apnea in the elderly: a specific entity? Sleep Med Rev 2007 11 : 87 97.
18. Amiel J, Laudier B, Attie-Bitach T, Trang H, de Pontual L, Gener B et al. Polyalanine expansion and frameshift mutations of the paired-like homeobox gene PHOX2B in congenital central hypoventilation syndrome. Nat Genet 2003 33 : 459 61.
19. Antic NA, Malow BA, Lange N, McEvoy RD, Olson AL, Turkington P et al. PHOX2B mutation-confirmed congenital central hypoventilation syndrome: presentation in adulthood. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006 174 : 923 7.
20. Malloy MH, Freeman DH Jr. Birth weight- and gestational age-specific sudden infant death syndrome mortality: United States, 1991 versus 1995. Pediatrics 2000 105 : 1227 31.
21. American Academy of Pediatrics Taskforce on Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. The changing concept of sudden infant death syndrome: diagnostic coding shifts, controversies regarding the sleeping environment, and new variables to consider in reducing risk. Pediatrics 2005 116 : 1245 55.
22. Vennemann MM, Findeisen M, Butterfass-Bahloul T, Jorch G, Brinkmann B, Kopcke W et al. Modifiable risk factors for SIDS in Germany: results of GeSID. Acta Paediatr 2005 94 : 655 60.
23. Halloran DR, Alexander GR. Preterm delivery and age of SIDS death. Ann Epidemiol 2006 16 : 600 606.
24. Tappin D, Ecob R, Brooke H. Bedsharing, roomsharing, and sudden infant death syndrome in Scotland: a case-control study. J Pediatr 2005 147 : 32 7.
25. Ritz B, Wilhelm M, Zhao Y. Air pollution and infant death in southern California, 1989-2000. Pediatrics 2006 118 : 493 502.
26. Freemantle CJ, Read AW, de Klerk NH, McAullay D, Anderson IP, Stanley FJ. Sudden infant death syndrome and unascertainable deaths: trends and disparities among aboriginal and non-aboriginal infants born in Western Australia from 1980 to 2001 inclusive. J Paediatr Child Health 2006 42 : 445 51.
27. Castor ML, Smyser MS, Taualii MM, Park AN, Lawson SA, Forquera RA. A nationwide population-based study identifying health disparities between American Indians/Alaska Natives and the general populations living in select urban counties. Am J Public Health 2006 96 : 1478 84.
28. Maron BJ, Epstein SE, Roberts WC. Causes of sudden death in competitive athletes. J Am Coll Cardiol 1986 7 : 204 14.
29. Ariagno RL, van Liempt S, Mirmiran M. Fewer spontaneous arousals during prone sleep in preterm infants at 1 and 3 months corrected age. J Perinatol 2006 26 : 306 12.
30. Voss LJ, Bolton DP, Galland BC, Taylor BJ. Effects of prior hypoxia exposure, endotoxin and sleep state on arousal ability to airway obstruction in piglets: implications for sudden infant death syndrome. Biol Neonate 2005 88 : 145 55.
31. Curran AK, Xia L, Leiter JC, Bartlett D Jr. Elevated body temperature enhances the laryngeal chemoreflex in decerebrate piglets. J Appl Physiol 2005 98 : 780 86.
32. Paterson DS, Trachtenberg FL, Thompson EG, Belliveau RA, Beggs AH, Darnall R et al. Multiple serotonergic brainstem abnormalities in sudden infant death syndrome. JAMA 2006 296 : 2124 32.
33. Bernal JF. Night waking in infants during the first 14 months. Dev Med Child Neurol 1973 15 : 760 69.
34. Lozoff B, Wolf AW, Davis NS. Sleep problems seen in pediatric practice. Pediatrics 1985 75 : 477 83.
35. Owens JA, Spirito A, McGuinn M, Nobile C. Sleep habits and sleep disturbance in elementary school-aged children. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2000 21 : 27 36.
36. Zuckerman B, Stevenson J, Bailey V. Sleep problems in early childhood: continuities, predictive factors, and behavioral correlates. Pediatrics 1987 80 : 664 71.
37. American Sleep Disorders Association. International Classification of Sleep Disorders, Revised: Diagnostic and Coding Manual. American Academy of Sleep Medicine, Rochester, MN 1997.
38. Pressman MR. Factors that predispose, prime and precipitate NREM parasomnias in adults: clinical and forensic implications. Sleep Med Rev 2007 11 : 5 30.
39. Kaneda R, Furuta H, Kazuto K, Arayama K, Sano J, Koshino Y. An unusual case of rhythmic movement disorder. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2000 54 : 348 9.
40. Mahowald MW, Schenck CH, Bornemann MA. Pathophysiologic mechanisms in REM sleep behavior disorder. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2007 7 : 167 72.
41. Marcus CL. Sleep-disordered breathing in children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001 164 : 16 30.
42. Ali NJ, Pitson DJ, Stradling JR. Snoring, sleep disturbance, and behaviour in 4-5 year olds. Arch Dis Child 1993 68 : 360 66.
43. Waters KA, Forbes P, Morielli A, Hum C, O'Gorman AM, Vernet O et al. Sleep-disordered breathing in children with myelomeningocele. J Pediatr 1998 132 : 672 81.
44. Marcus CL, Keens TG, Bautista DB, von Pechmann WS, Ward SL. Obstructive sleep apnea in children with Down syndrome. Pediatrics 1991 88 : 132 9.
45. Tasker RC, Dundas I, Laverty A, Fletcher M, Lane R, Stocks J. Distinct patterns of respiratory difficulty in young children with achondroplasia: a clinical, sleep, and lung function study. Arch Dis Child 1998 79 : 99 108.
46. Leighton SE, Papsin B, Vellodi A, Dinwiddie R, Lane R. Disordered breathing during sleep in patients with mucopolysaccharidoses. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2001 58 : 127 38.
47. Carroll JL, McColley SA, Marcus CL, Curtis S, Loughlin GM. Inability of clinical history to distinguish primary snoring from obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in children. Chest 1995 108 : 610 18.
48. Chervin RD, Ruzicka DL, Giordani BJ, Weatherly RA, Dillon JE, Hodges EK et al. Sleep-disordered breathing, behavior, and cognition in children before and after adenotonsillectomy. Pediatrics 2006 117 : e769 78.
49. Goldstein NA, Fatima M, Campbell TF, Rosenfeld RM. Child behavior and quality of life before and after tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2002 128 : 770 75.
50. Gozal D. Sleep-disordered breathing and school performance in children. Pediatrics 1998 102 (3 Pt 1 616 20.
51. Kahn A, Van de MC, Rebuffat E, Mozin MJ, Sottiaux M, Blum D et al. Sleep problems in healthy preadolescents. Pediatrics 1989 84 : 542 6.
52. Brooks LJ, Topol HI. Enuresis in children with sleep apnea. J Pediatr 2003 142 : 515 18.
53. Guilleminault C, Eldridge FL, Simmons FB, Dement WC. Sleep apnea in eight children. Pediatrics 1976 58 : 23 30.
54. Marcus CL, Carroll JL, Koerner CB, Hamer A, Lutz J, Loughlin GM. Determinants of growth in children with the obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. J Pediatr 1994 125 : 556 62.
55. Nieminen P, Lopponen T, Tolonen U, Lanning P, Knip M, Lopponen H. Growth and biochemical markers of growth in children with snoring and obstructive sleep apnea. Pediatrics 2002 109 : e55.
56. Gozal D, Pope DW Jr. Snoring during early childhood and academic performance at ages thirteen to fourteen years. Pediatrics 2001 107 : 1394 9.
57. Young T, Peppard PE, Gottlieb DJ. Epidemiology of obstructive sleep apnea: a population health perspective. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002 165 : 1217 39.
58. Zintzaras E, Kaditis AG. Sleep-disordered breathing and blood pressure in children: a meta-analysis. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2007 161 : 172 8.
59. Amin RS, Carroll JL, Jeffries JL, Grone C, Bean JA, Chini B et al. Twenty-four-hour ambulatory blood pressure in children with sleep-disordered breathing. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2004 169 : 950 56.
60. Guilleminault C, Partinen M, Praud JP, Quera-Salva MA, Powell N, Riley R. Morphometric facial changes and obstructive sleep apnea in adolescents. J Pediatr 1989 114 : 997 9.
61. Tasker C, Crosby JH, Stradling JR. Evidence for persistence of upper airway narrowing during sleep, 12 years after adenotonsillectomy. Arch Dis Child 2002 86 : 34 7.
62. Mindell JA, Emslie G, Blumer J, Genel M, Glaze D, Ivanenko A et al. Pharmacologic management of insomnia in children and adolescents: consensus statement. Pediatrics 2006 117 : e1223 32.
63. Sadeh A, Raviv A, Gruber R. Sleep patterns and sleep disruptions in school-age children. Dev Psychol 2000 36 : 291 301.
64. Lindblom N, Heiskala H, Kaski M, Leinonen L, Nevanlinna A, Iivanainen M et al. Neurological impairments and sleep-wake behaviour among the mentally retarded. J Sleep Res 2001 10 : 309 18.
65. Quine L. Sleep problems in primary school children: comparison between mainstream and special school children. Child Care Health Dev 2001 27 : 201 21.
66. National Institutes of Health, National Institutes of Health State of the Science conference statement on manifestations and management of chronic insomnia in adults, June 13-15. Sleep 2005 28 : 1049 57.
67. Challamel MJ, Mazzola ME, Nevsimalova S, Cannard C, Louis J, Revol M. Narcolepsy in children. Sleep 1994 17 (8 Suppl S17 S20.
68. Stores G. The protean manifestations of childhood narcolepsy and their misinterpretation. Dev Med Child Neurol 2006 48 : 307 10.
69. Scher A, Tirosh E, Lavie P. The relationship between sleep and temperament revisited: evidence for 12-month-olds: a research note. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1998 39 : 785 8.
70. Owens JA, Palermo TM, Rosen CL. Overview of current managment of sleep disturbances in children. II: behavioural interventions. Curr Ther Res Clin Exp 2002 63 Suppl B : B38 52.
71. Sadeh A, Acebo C. The role of actigraphy in sleep medicine. Sleep Med Rev 2002 6 : 113 24.
72. Hyde M, O'Driscoll DM, Binette S, Galang C, Tan SK, Verginis N et al. Validation of actigraphy for determining sleep and wake in children with sleep disordered breathing. J Sleep Res 2007 16 : 213 16.
73. So K, Buckley P, Adamson TM, Horne RS. Actigraphy correctly predicts sleep behavior in infants who are younger than six months, when compared with polysomnography. Pediatr Res 2005 58 : 761 5.
74. Laurikainen E, Erkinjuntti M, Alihanka J, Rikalainen H, Suonpaa. Radiological parameters of the bony nasopharynx and the adenotonsillar size compared with sleep apnea episodes in children. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 1987 12 : 303 10.
75. Arens R, McDonough JM, Corbin AM, Rubin NK, Carroll ME, Pack AI et al. Upper airway size analysis by magnetic resonance imaging of children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003 167 : 65 70.
76. Anon. Standards and indications for cardiopulmonary sleep studies in children. American Thoracic Society. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996 153 : 866 78.
77. Grigg-Damberger M, Gozal D, Marcus CL, Quan SF, Rosen CL, Chervin RD et al. The visual scoring of sleep and arousal in infants and children. J Clin Sleep Med 2007 3 : 201 40.
78. Goh DY, Galster P, Marcus CL. Sleep architecture and respiratory disturbances in children with obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000 162 (2 Pt 1 682 6.
79. Morielli A, Desjardins D, Brouillette RT. Transcutaneous and end-tidal carbon dioxide pressures should be measured during pediatric polysomnography. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993 148 (6 Pt 1 1599 604.
80. Uliel S, Tauman R, Greenfeld M, Sivan Y. Normal polysomnographic respiratory values in children and adolescents. Chest 2004 125 : 872 8.
81. Guilleminault C, Lee JH, Chan A. Pediatric obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2005 159 : 775 85.
82. McColley SA, April MM, Carroll JL, Naclerio RM, Loughlin GM. Respiratory compromise after adenotonsillectomy in children with obstructive sleep apnea. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1992 118 : 940 43.
83. Hoban TF, Chervin RD. Assessment of sleepiness in children. Semin Pediatr Neurol 2001 8 : 216 28.
84. Carskadon M. The second decade. In : Guilleminault C, ed. Sleeping and Waking Disorders: Indications and Techniques. Menlo Park, CA : Addison-Wesley Publishing 1982 99 125.
85. Littner MR, Kushida C, Wise M, Davila DG, Morgenthaler T, Lee-Chiong T et al. Practice parameters for clinical use of the multiple sleep latency test and the maintenance of wakefulness test. Sleep 2005 28 : 113 21.
86. Marcus CL, Keens TG, Ward SL. Comparison of nap and overnight polysomnography in children. Pediatr Pulmonol 1992 13 : 16 21.
87. Cooper S. Diagnosing paediatric OSA thesis/dissertation Discipline of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia 2004.
88. Mindell JA. Empirically supported treatments in pediatric psychology: bedtime refusal and night wakings in young children. J Pediatr Psychol 1999 24 : 465 81.
89. Tauman R, Gulliver TE, Krishna J, Montgomery-Downs HE, O'Brien LM, Ivanenko A et al. Persistence of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in children after adenotonsillectomy. J Pediatr 2006 149 : 803 8.
90. Mindell JA, Owens JA. A Clinical Approach to Paediatric Sleep. Philadelphia : Lippincott Williams Wilkins 2003.
91. Murphy PJ, Campbell SS. Nighttime drop in body temperature: a physiological trigger for sleep onset? Sleep 1997 20 : 505 11.
92. Wolkove N, Elkholy O, Baltzan M, Palayew M. Sleep and aging: 2. Management of sleep disorders in older people. CMAJ 2007 176 : 1449 54.
93. Owens JA, Rosen CL, Mindell JA. Medication use in the treatment of pediatric insomnia: results of a survey of community-based pediatricians. Pediatrics 2003 111 (5 Pt 1 e628 35.
94. Andersen IM, Kaczmarska J, McGrew SG, Malow BA. Melatonin for insomnia in children with autism spectrum disorders. J Child Neurol 2008 23 (5 482 5.
95. Sajith SG, Clarke D. Melatonin and sleep disorders associated with intellectual disability: a clinical review. J Intellect Disabil Res 2007 51 (Pt 1 2 13.
96. Wills L, Garcia J. Parasomnias: epidemiology and management. CNS Drugs 2002 16 : 803 10.
97. Palm L, Blennow G, Wetterberg L. Long-term melatonin treatment in blind children and young adults with circadian sleep-wake disturbances. Dev Med Child Neurol 1997 39 : 319 25.
98. Touitou Y. Human aging and melatonin. Clinical relevance. Exp Gerontol 2001 36 : 1083 100.
99. Dodge NN, Wilson GA. Melatonin for treatment of sleep disorders in children with developmental disabilities. J Child Neurol 2001 16 : 581 4.
100. Smits MG, Nagtegaal EE, van der Heijden J, Coenen AM, Kerkhof GA. Melatonin for chronic sleep onset insomnia in children: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. J Child Neurol 2001 16 : 86 92.
101. Stores G. Recognition and management of narcolepsy. Arch Dis Child 1999 81 : 519 24.
102. Waters KA, Everett FM, Bruderer JW, Sullivan CE. Obstructive sleep apnea: the use of nasal CPAP in 80 children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995 152 : 780 85.
103. Brouillette RT, Manoukian JJ, Ducharme FM, Oudjhane K, Earle LG, Ladan S et al. Efficacy of fluticasone nasal spray for pediatric obstructive sleep apnea. J Pediatr 2001 138 : 838 44.
104. Goldbart AD, Goldman JL, Veling MC, Gozal D. Leukotriene modifier therapy for mild sleep-disordered breathing in children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005 172 : 364 70.
105. Lipton AJ, Gozal D. Treatment of obstructive sleep apnea in children: do we really know how? Sleep Med Rev 2003 7 : 61 80.
106. Suen JS, Arnold JE, Brooks LJ. Adenotonsillectomy for treatment of obstructive sleep apnea in children. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1995 121 : 525 30.
107. O'Brien LM, Sitha S, Baur LA, Waters KA. Obesity increases the risk for persisting obstructive sleep apnea after treatment in children. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2006 70 : 1555 60.
108. Rosen CL, Morton S, Larkin E, Aylor J, Clark K, O'Malla B et al. Persistence of sleep disordered breathing in children post-adenotonsillectomy [abstract]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001 163 : A184.
109. Rosen GM, Muckle RP, Mahowald MW, Goding GS, Ullevig C. Postoperative respiratory compromise in children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome: can it be anticipated? Pediatrics 1994 93 : 784 8.
110. Li KK, Riley RW, Guilleminault C. An unreported risk in the use of home nasal continuous positive airway pressure and home nasal ventilation in children: mid-face hypoplasia. Chest 2000 117 : 916 18.
111. Waters K. Interventions in the paediatric sleep laboratory: the use and titration of respiratory support therapies. Paediatr Respir Rev 2008 (in press).
112. Rennotte MT, Baele P, Aubert G, Rodenstein DO. Nasal continuous positive airway pressure in the perioperative management of patients with obstructive sleep apnea submitted to surgery. Chest 1995 107 : 367 74.
113. Berthon-Jones M, Sullivan CE. Time course of change in ventilatory response to CO2 with long-term CPAP therapy for obstructive sleep apnea. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987 135 : 144 7.
114. Nakamura T, Nishimura M, Nishimura S, Taenaka N, Mashimo T Successful weaning from mechanical ventilation in an infant with congenital tracheal stenosis and bronchial malacia using endobronchial stent, nasal CPAP and continuous sedation Masui 2000 49 : 872 6.
115. Panitch HB, Allen JL, Alpert BE, Schidlow DV. Effects of CPAP on lung mechanics in infants with acquired tracheobronchomalacia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994 150 (5 Pt 1 1341 6.
116. Fauroux B Chronic respiratory failure in children. Evaluation and management Rev Mal Respir 2001 18 : 644 9.
117. Fauroux B, Boffa C, Desguerre I, Estournet B, Trang H. Long-term noninvasive mechanical ventilation for children at home: a national survey. Pediatr Pulmonol 2003 35 : 119 25.
118. Chen ML, Tablizo MA, Kun S, Keens TG. Diaphragm pacers as a treatment for congenital central hypoventilation syndrome. Expert Rev Med Devices 2005 2 : 577 85.
119. Freed GE, Meny R, Glomb WB, Hageman JR. Effect of home monitoring on a high-risk population. J Perinatol 2002 22 : 165 7.
120. Jobe AH. What do home monitors contribute to the SIDS problem? JAMA 2001 285 : 2244 5.
121. Hailey D, Tran K, Dales R, Mensinkai S, McGahan L. Recommendations and supporting evidence in guidelines for referral of patients to sleep laboratories. Sleep Med Rev 2006 10 : 287 99.
122. McGarvey C, McDonnell M, Hamilton K, O'Regan M, Matthews T. An 8 year study of risk factors for SIDS: bed-sharing versus non-bed-sharing. Arch Dis Child 2006 91 : 318 23.
123. Brouillette RT, Waters K. Oxygen therapy for pediatric obstructive sleep apnea syndrome: how safe? How effective? Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996 153 : 1 2.
124. Aljadeff G, Gozal D, Bailey-Wahl SL, Burrell B, Keens TG, Ward SL. Effects of overnight supplemental oxygen in obstructive sleep apnea in children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996 153 : 51 5.
125. Downey R III., Perkin RM, MacQuarrie J. Nasal continuous positive airway pressure use in children with obstructive sleep apnea younger than 2 years of age. Chest 2000 117 : 1608 12.
126. Rosen GM, Mahowald MW, Ferber R. Sleepwalking, confusional arousal, and sleep terrors in the child. In : Ferber R, Kryger M, eds. Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine in the Child. Philadelphia : WB Saunders 1995 99 106.
127. Tauman R, Gulliver TE, Krishna J, Montgomery-Downs HE, O'Brien LM, Ivanenko A et al. Persistence of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in children after adenotonsillectomy. J Pediatr 2006 149 : 803 8.