Visionary geographies: Designs for developing Ireland

History Workshop Journal

Volumn 45, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 48-78

  Nash, Catherine ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 54649083418     PISSN: 13633554     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/hwj/1998.45.49     Document Type: Article

References (163)

1. See Monk Gibbon, The Living Torch, London, 1937;
2. Henry Summerfield, That Myriad-Minded Man, Colin Smythe, 1975.
3. See Patrick Bolger, The Irish Co-operative Movement: Its History and Development, Institute of Public Administration, 1977;
4. Carla Keating (ed.), Plunkett and Co-operatives, Past, Present and Future, University College Cork and Bank of Ireland Centre for Co-operative Studies, 1983;
5. Anthony P. Quinn (ed.), The Golden Triangle: Creativity, Co-operation and Action, The AE Commemorative Lectures, Society for Co-operative Studies in Ireland, 1989;
6. Cyril Ehelich, 'Sir Horace Plunkett and Agricultural Reform', in J. M. Goldstrom and L. A. Clarkson (eds), Irish Population, Economy and Society, Clarendon Press, 1981, pp. 271-85.
7. See also Lionel Smith-Gordon and Laurence C. Staples, Rural Reconstruction in Ireland: A Record of Co-operative Organisation, with preface by George W. Russell, P. S. King, 1971.
8. This issue is discussed in more detail in relation to the utopian plans of Standish O'Grady in my 'Men Again: Irish masculinity, nature and nationhood in the early twentieth century', Ecumene: A Journal of Environment, Culture, Meaning 3: 3, 1996, pp. 427-53.
9. George William Russell, Co-operation and Nationality: a guide for rural reformers, Maunsel, 1912;
10. and The National Being - A design for developing Ireland (1916), Irish Academic Press, 1982.
11. Liam O'Dowd, 'Neglecting the material dimension: Irish intellectuals and the problem of identity', Irish Review 3, 1988, pp. 8-17.
12. For accounts of urban tenants' rights movements see Brian Graham and Susan Hood, 'Town tenant protest in late nineteenth and early-twentieth century Ireland', Irish Economic and Social History 21, 1994, pp. 39-57;
13. and Brian Graham and Susan Hood, 'Social protest in late nineteenth-century Irish towns - the House League movement', Irish Geography 29:1, 1996, pp. 1-12.
14. Roy Foster, 'History and identity in modern Ireland', Eighth Annual Bindoff Lecture, Queen Mary and Westfield College, University of London, 1997, p. 17;
15. Richard Kearney, Post-nationalist Ireland: Politics, Culture, Philosophy, Routledge, 1997, p. 103;
16. Richard Kearney, 'Thinking Otherwise', in R. Kearney (ed.), Across the Frontiers: Cultural - Political - Economic, Ireland in the 1990s, Wolfhound Press, 1988, pp. 7-28.
17. Luke Gibbons, Transformation in Irish Culture, Cork University Press, 1996.
18. See especially his 'Identity without a centre: allegory, history and Irish nationalism', pp. 134-48.
19. Brian J. Graham, 'The search for common ground: Estyn Evans's Ireland', Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 19:2, 1994, pp. 183-201, 185; and
20. Brian J. Graham, 'Heritage conservation and revisionist nationalism in Ireland', in G. J. Ashworth and P. J. Larkam (eds), Tourism, Culture and Identity in the new Europe, Routledge, 1994, pp. 135-58.
21. The potential that research on gender offers for a more complex sense of Irish history is discussed in Margaret MacCurtain and Mary O'Dowd, 'An agenda for women's history in Ireland. Part I: 1500-1800', Irish Historical Studies 28: 109, 1992-3, pp. 1-19;
22. and Maria Luddy, 'An agenda for women's history in Ireland. Part II: 1800-1900', Irish Historical Studies 28: 109, 1992-3, pp. 19-37.
23. See also the Special Issues on Ireland of Feminist Review 50, 1995
24. and Journal of Women's History 6:4, 7:1, 1995.
25. See Horace Plunkett, The Neglect of Country Life: a plea and a policy, Plunkett House Series no. 1, 1909;
26. Horace Plunkett, 'Workers and the Brightening of Rural Life', The Irish Nation and The Peasant, 27 Aug. 1910;
27. Horace Plunkett, A suggested isolation of the rural problem, Office of the Irish Homestead, 1913.
28. See also Moritz Bonn, Modern Ireland and her Agrarian Problem, trans. T. W. Rolleston, Figgis, 1906.
29. Russell wrote the preface to E. T. Craig, An Irish Commune: History of Ralahine, Martin Lester, 1919.
30. See Conor Kostick, Revolution in Ireland: popular militancy 1917-1923, Pluto Press, 1996.
31. See Liam Kennedy, 'Farmers, Traders and Agricultural Politics in Pre-Independence Ireland', in S. Clark and J. S. Donnolly (eds), Irish Peasants, Violence and Political Unrest, 1780-1914, Manchester University Press, 1983, pp. 339-73.
32. See Bolger, 1977, p. 209.
33. Padraic Colum, Wild Earth and other Poems, Maunsel, Dublin, 1916 (first edn 1909), p. 1.
34. Colum was a devotee of Russell who acknowledged his inspiration in the dedication of his Collected Poems, Devin-Adaix, 1953, 'To AE who fostered me'.
35. H. D. (unidentified), The Spectre, Thomas McLean, London, 1851.
36. The three plates from the publication are reproduced with commentary in Neol Kissane, The Irish Famine: a documentary history, National Library of Ireland, 1995.
37. Michael Turner, 'Rural Economics in Post-Famine Ireland, c.1850-1914', in B. J. Graham and L. J. Proudfoot, An Historical Geography of Ireland, Academic Press, Harcourt Brace, Jovanovich, 1993, pp. 293-337.
38. See for example, Sydney Brooks, The New Ireland, Maunsel, 1907;
39. Sydney Brooks, 'Sir Horace Plunkett and his work', Fortnightly Review 91(NS), 1912, pp. 1,011-21;
40. Castleton of Upper Ossory [Bernard E. G. Fitzpatrick], 'A plea for tillage farming on Co-operative lines', Journal of the Statistical and Social Inquiry Society of Ireland 11, 1905, pp. 339-51;
41. P. Coffey, 'Tillage versus Grazing', Catholic Bulletin 10, pp. 225-9;
42. John MacGrath, 'Agrarian Reform in Ireland', Fortnightly Review 107 (NS), 1917, pp. 1,060-74;
43. James Wilson, 'Tillage Versus Grazing', Journal of the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction 5:2, 1905, pp. 217-35;
44. Dudley Edwards, 'The Decline in Population and Tillage', New Ireland Review 33, 1910, pp. 302-8,
45. and Dudley Edwards, New Ireland Review 34, 1910, pp. 1-34.
46. D. S. Jones, 'The cleavage between grazier and peasants in the land struggle, 1890-1910', in S. Clark and J. S. Donnolly (eds), Irish Peasants, Violence and Political Unrest 1780-1914, Manchester University Press, 1983, pp. 374-417.
47. Horace Plunkett, Ireland in the New Century, Maunsel, 1907, p. 43.
48. Coffey, 'Tillage versus Grazing', p. 220.
49. Edward Mac Lysaght, The Gael, Maunsel, 1919, pp. 84-6, pp. 276-7. In a review of
50. The Gael (Catholic Bulletin 10, Jan. 1920, pp. 57-9), Mac Lysaght was described as well-known as a practical farmer in Co. Clare, who has energetically practised on his own unit of Irish soil the principles, especially that of co-operation, which he considers to be needed for the economic uplifting of our entire country . . . he is not only a Gael but a Gaelhilgeoir [Irish speaker] (p. 57).
51. See also, Edward Mac Lysaght, 'The Farmers and the Food Problem: Connacht', Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review of Letters, Philosophy and Science 6: 21, 1917, pp. 21-7, Special Issue,
52. 'The Food Problem in Ireland'; Edward Mac Lysaght, 'Irish Agriculture', Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review of Letters, Philosophy and Science 7, 1918, pp. 314-9, Special Issue,
53. 'Four Years of Irish Economies'.
54. Edward [Mac] Lysaght, Poems, Hodges and Figgis, 1915.
55. Edward [Mac] Lysaght, Sir Horace Plunkett and his place in the Irish Nation, Maunsel, 1916, p. 140.
56. William Bulfin, Rambles in Erin, Sphere Books, 1981 (first published 1907), pp. 44-5.
57. The elevation of tillage over pastoral farming was tied to the movement for food reform and the development of the body through exercise. In the writings of James H. Cousins (who with his wife Margaret left the Irish Theosophical and Irish women's suffrage movements in Dublin, to teach and work towards social reform in India) concerns of education, spiritual brotherhood, Eastern mysticism, vegetarianism and co-operation were interwoven. Cousins extended the idea of co-operation from the Irish Agricultural Organisation Society to be a maxim for life in general. He linked spiritual reform to the science of food reform and equated dietetics with 'diet-ethics'; his advocation of the abolition of the cattle trade in favour of vegetarianism was part of his concern with social reform through theosophy, geographical education and co-operation. See my 'Geo-centric education and anti-imperialism: theosophy, geography and citizenship in the writings of J. H. Cousins', Journal of Historical Geography 22: 4, 1996, pp. 399-411.
58. Bulfin, Rambles in Erin, pp. 70-1.
59. Sydney Brooks, The New Ireland, p. 89.
60. D. S. Jones, 1983, pp. 374-417 (see n. 20).
61. Seamus O'Sullivan [James Starkey], The Earth Lover and Other Verses, New Nation Press, 1909, p. 31.
62. John W. Boyle, 'A Marginal Figure: the Irish Rural Labourer', in Clark and Donnolly (eds), Irish Peasants, Violence and Political Unrest, 1780-1914, pp. 311-38.
63. David Fitzpatrick, 'The disappearance of the Irish agricultural labourer', Irish Economic and Social History 7, 1980, pp. 66-92.
64. Emmet O'Connor, Syndicalism in Ireland, 1917-1923, Cork University Press, 1988, p. 1-8;
65. see also Emmet O'Connor, A Labour History of Ireland, 1824-1960, Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 1992, Ch. 5,
66. 'Syndicalism, 1917-1926', pp. 94-116.
67. W. P. Ryan, The Labour Revolt and Larkinism, Daily Herald Office, 1913, pp. 4-5.
68. James Connolly, Labour in Irish History, Part 2, The Reconquest of Ireland, Maunsel, 1917 (first published in 1915),
69. see also Keith Harding, 'The "Co-operative Commonwealth'': Ireland, Larkin and the "Daily Herald"', in Stephen Yeo (ed.), New Views of Co-operation, Routledge, 1988, pp. 88-107.
70. Connolly, Labour in Irish History, pp. 222-3.
71. O'Connor, Syndicalism in Ireland, p. 49.
72. O'Connor, Syndicalism in Ireland, p. 35.
73. See AE: George Russell and his Circle, Arts Council of Northern Ireland, 1983;
74. George Russell - AE, The Oriel Gallery, 1989.
75. See Anon, 'Objects of the Theosophical Society', Irish Theosophist 1: 9, 1892;
76. Rev. R. Howley, 'Theosophy - Its Genesis and Genius', Irish Ecclesiastical Record (3rd Series) 10, 1889, pp. 875-82;
77. Rev. R. Howley, 'Theosophical Ethics', Irish Ecclesiastical Record (3rd Series) 10, 1889, pp. 1,022-9;
78. Monk Gibbon, 'Æ and the early days of Theosophy in Dublin', Dublin Magazine 32: 3, 1957, pp. 25-37.
79. G. W. Russell, The Candle of Vision: An Autobiography of a Mystic, Theosophical Publishing House (first published 1918), 1974, p. 35.
80. For a summary of the mutual construction of national, gender and sexual identities see C. Nash, 'Embodied Irishness: gender, sexuality and Irish identity', in In Search of Ireland, Brian Graham (ed.), Routledge, 1997, pp. 108-27.
81. G. W. Russell, 'The Awakening of the Fires', Irish Theosophist 5, 1897, pp. 67-87, p. 68.
82. G. W. Russell, 'Priest or Hero', Irish Theosophist 5, 1897, pp. 127-50, p. 149.
83. Darrell Figgis, Æ: A Study of a Man and a Nation, Maunsel, 1916, pp. 55-6.
84. Figgis, Æ, pp. 75-7.
85. This combination of modernism and mysticism appears also in the work of inter-war Welsh and English preservationists. See Pyrs Gruffudd, '"Back to the land": historiography, rurality and the nation in inter-war Wales', Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 19, 1994, pp. 61-77;
86. and David Matless, 'Nature, the modern and the mystic: tales from early twentieth century geography', Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 16, 1991, 272-86.
87. Figgis, Æ, p. 74.
88. Russell, The Candle of Vision, p. 49.
89. See also 'The Memory of Earth' in his collection of poetry, The Earth Breath, John Lane, 1897, p. 27.
90. Russell, The Candle of Vision, p. 61.
91. Russell, The Candle of Vision, p. 106.
92. One problem of working on a predominantly rural movement is that it matches the ways in which the urban has been marginalized in Irish culture and research. See footnote 6 above.
93. See Arnold Smithline, Natural Religion in American Literature, College and University Press, 1966, pp. 9-20, pp. 127-65.
94. Russell, The Candle of Vision, p. 1, p. 3.
95. Russell, The Candle of Vision, p. 7, p. 10.
96. Russell, The Candle of Vision, p. 30.
97. The problems of figuring nature as mother within contemporary environmental discourses are discussed in Catherine Roach, 'Loving your Mother: on the woman-nature relation', Hypatia 6: 1, 1991, pp. 46-59.
98. Russell, The Candle of Vision, p. 172.
99. Russell, The Candle of Vision, pp. 170-1.
100. Russell, 'Content', Irish Theosophist 4, 1896, pp. 15-17, p. 15. See also
101. 'In the Womb' in The Earth Breath, 1897, p. 88 with the verse 'And day by day the dawn or dark enfolds/And feeds with beauty eyes that cannot see/How in her womb the mighty mother moulds/The infant spirit for eternity'.
102. Russell, The Candle of Vision, p. 11.
103. Russell, The Candle of Vision, pp. 29-30.
104. Russell, 'A Tragedy in the Temple', Irish Theosophist 1, 1892, p. 124.
105. Darrell Figgis, Children of Earth, Maunsel, 1919.
106. This novel is discussed in greater depth in my 'Embodying the Nation: the West of Ireland Landscape and Irish Identity' in Michael Cronin and Barbara O'Connor (eds), Tourism and Ireland: A Critical Analysis, Cork University Press, 1993, pp. 86-114.
107. Figgis, Æ, p. 16.
108. Padraic Colum, Wild Earth and Other Poems, Maunsel, 1909.
109. For this organization, later renamed the 'Irish Countrywomen's Association', see Diarmaid Ferriter, Mothers, Myths and Maidens: a history of the Irish Countrywomen's Association, FÁS, 1995
110. and Sara McNamara, Those Intrepid United Irishwomen: pioneers of the Irish Countrywomen's Association, S. McNamara, 1995.
111. Russell, 'Editorial', Irish Homestead, 23 April 1910.
112. Russell, Co-operation and Nationality, pp. 71-2.
113. The phrase 'youths, beautiful, gigantic and sweet-blooded' was taken from Whitman's poem of 1891, 'So Long', from the section 'Songs of Parting', first published in the 1891-2 edn of Leaves of Grass. See Walt Whitman, Selected Poems, Dover Publications, 1991.
114. See Alistair Thomson, '"Domestic drudgery will be a thing of the past": Co-operative women and the reform of housework', in Stephen Yeo (ed.), New Views of Co-operation, Routledge, 1988, pp. 108-27.
115. Russell, 'Editorial', Irish Homestead, 19 Feb. 1910.
116. Russell, Co-operation and nationality, p. 70.
117. Russell, 'Editorial', The Irish Homestead, 20 Sept. 1913.
118. Russell, Co-operation and Nationality, 'Women on the land', pp. 63-7.
119. See Sean O'Faolain, Countess Markievicz, Jonathan Cape, 1934, pp. 125-34,
120. and Anne Marreco, The Rebel Countess, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1967, pp. 130-4.
121. Russell, The National Being, pp. 27-8.
122. Russell, The National Being, p. 31.
123. Russell adopted Rousseau's idea of the general will for good in society which must be allowed freedom of expression. See N. J. H. Dent, Rousseau: An Introduction to his Psychological, Social and Political Theory, Basil Blackwell, 1988, Ch. 5, pp. 168-211.
124. Russell, The National Being, pp. 40, 42.
125. Russell, The National Being, p. 108-9.
126. Russell, The National Being, p. 124
127. Russell, The National Being, pp. 13-14.
128. Russell, The National Being, p. 163.
129. Russell, The National Being, p. 30.
130. Russell, The National Being, pp. 32-3, p. 41.
131. Russell, The National Being, p. 159.
132. Russell, The National Being, pp. 160-2.
133. See for example W. J. Johnston, 'The coming changes in Irish local government', Journal of the Statistical and Social Inquiry Society of Ireland 10, 1898, pp. 366-77;
134. W. R. MacDermot, 'The Local Government Bargain', New Ireland Review 9, 1898, pp. 114-9;
135. Charles Dawson, 'The new local bodies and the new Department of Agriculture and Technical Education and the development of the resources of Ireland', Journal of the Statistical and Social Inquiry Society of Ireland 10, 1900, p. 567-79;
136. William Field, 'How Ireland suffers under centralised departments and suggested remedies', New Ireland Review 20, 1904, pp. 338-48.
137. See also Aodh de Blacám, Towards the Republic: A study of New Ireland's social and political aims (Kiersey, 1918, pp. 23-8),
138. who agreed with Figgis's idea of stateships and the need for decentralization. Another plan suggested a new political system blending Catholic control with a rejection of democracy. Irish history in this case did not evoke communal ownership and democratic devolution but a proto-fascist, autocratic and patriarchal, if federal, form of government. See William Ferris, 'The Gaelic Commonwealth: a proposal to organise Ireland as a Gaelic State on a parish basis under an Árd Rí', Catholic Bulletin 9, 1919, pp. 69-80.
139. Connolly, Labour in Irish History, p. 250.
140. Russell, Co-operation and Nationality, pp. 68-9.
141. Figgis, Æ, p. 123.
142. Figgis, The Gaelic State in the Past and Future, or, The Crown of a Nation, Maunsel, 1917, p. 15.
143. Figgis, The Gaelic State, p. 36.
144. Figgis entered into a debate with the Irish historian Eoin Mac Neill in the Irish Homestead in 1919, arguing against Mac Neill's rejection of its existence in ancient Ireland. Russell, as editor, responded in favour of Figgis. Though Russell frequently evoked the idea of communal ownership in the clans, he recognized the force of the concept in 'creating imaginatively a past so that the people may live up to it'. Seeing this as the duty of the historian, he asked Mac Neill to consider 'carefully what kind of past he is going to create for us'. See Darrell Figgis, 'A Distinction without a Difference, Part 1: Did Communal Ownership of Land Exist in Ancient Ireland?' Irish Homestead 8, Nov. 1919, pp. 820-1;
145. and Darrell Figgis, 'A Distinction Without a Difference, Part 2: Was Land Held Communally in Ancient Ireland?', Irish Homestead 15, Nov. 1919, pp. 838-9:
146. Eoin Mac Neill, 'Communal ownership in ancient Ireland', Irish Monthly 47, 1919, pp. 407-15, pp. 463-74;
147. Eoin Mac Neill, 'The End of the Argument', Irish Homestead, 22, Nov. 1919, pp. 856, 858;
148. George William Russell, 'The Antiquity of the Co-operative Man', Irish Homestead 22, Nov. 1919, p. 856.
149. Figgis, The Gaelic State, p. 64.
150. Figgis, The Gaelic State, p. 74.
151. See Graham, 'Heritage conservation and revisionist nationalism in Ireland';
152. Nuala C. Johnson, 'Where geography and history meet: heritage tourism and the big house in Ireland', Annals of the Association of American Geographers 86: 3, 1996, pp. 551-66;
153. and Colm Lincoln 'City of Culture: Dublin and the Discovery of Urban Heritage', in Michael Cronin and Barbara O'Connor (eds), Tourism and Ireland: a critical analysis, Cork University Press, 1993, pp. 203-32.
154. Darrell Figgis, 'Irish nationality', English Review 14, April-July 1913, pp. 456-68.
155. I am drawing here on the eco-feminist critique of ideas of individualistic incorporation in nature within Deep Ecology. See Val Plumwood, 'Nature, Self, and Gender: Feminism, Environmental Philosophy, and the Critique of Rationalism', Hypatia 6: 1, 1991, pp. 3-27:
156. and Val Plumwood, 'The Ecopolitics Debate and the Politics of Nature', in Karen Warren (ed.), Ecological Feminism, Routledge, 1994, pp. 64-87.
157. See Richard Kearney Post-nationalist Ireland;
158. M. P. Hederman, 'Poetry and the Fifth Province', Crane Bag 9: 1, 1985, pp. 110-9;
159. Shaun Richards, 'Field Day's fifth province or impasse?', in E. Hughes (ed.); Culture and Politics in Northern Ireland, 1960-1990, Open University Press, 1991, pp. 139-50;
160. Stephen Regan 'Ireland's Field Day', History Workshop Journal 33, spring 1992, pp. 25-37;
161. Richard Meagan, 'The Irish Diaspora and Liverpool';
162. Kevin McManus, 'Céilis, Jigs and Ballads: Irish Music in Liverpool', in John Allen and Doreen Massey (eds), Geographical Worlds, Oxford University Press, 1995;
163. Fintan O'Toole, 'Private Republics and Private Realms: the politics of space in modern Ireland', in Penelope Curtis (ed.), Strongholds: New Art from Ireland. Tate Gallery Liverpool, 1991.