Ancient woodlands: Modern threats

New Phytologist

Volumn 180, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 571-586

  Rackham, Oliver ^a  

^a University of Cambridge   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Ancient woodland; Climate change; Destruction and fragmentation; Excessive shade and deer; Fire; Invasive species; Plant disease; Pollution and eutrophication

Indexed keywords

ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECT; CLIMATE CHANGE; DISEASE; EUTROPHICATION; FIRE; HABITAT FRAGMENTATION; HOLOCENE; INVASIVE SPECIES; NATURE CONSERVATION; PATHOGEN; SAVANNA; WOODLAND;

AIR POLLUTANT; ANIMAL; ECOSYSTEM; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; EUTROPHICATION; FIRE; FORESTRY; GREENHOUSE EFFECT; GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND AGING; HUMAN; MICROBIOLOGY; PARASITOLOGY; PLANT DISEASE; REVIEW; SUNLIGHT; TREE;

AIR POLLUTANTS; ANIMALS; CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES; ECOSYSTEM; EUTROPHICATION; FIRES; FORESTRY; GREENHOUSE EFFECT; HUMANS; PLANT DISEASES; SUNLIGHT; TREES;

EURASIA; EUROPE;

ANIMALIA; CERVIDAE;

EID: 54049124141     PISSN: 0028646X     EISSN: 14698137     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2008.02579.x     Document Type: Review

References (140)

1. Adam P. 1994. Australian rainforests. Oxford, UK : Oxford University Press.
2. Adams MB, Eager C. 1991. Effects of acidic deposition on high-elevation spruce-fir forests in the United States. In : Longhurst JWS, ed. Acid deposition. Berlin, Germany : Springer, 75 89.
3. 2. New Phytologist 165 : 351 372.
4. Akashi N, Nakashizuka T. 1999. Effects of bark-stripping by Sika deer (Cervus nippon) on population dynamics of a mixed forest in Japan. Forest Ecology and Management 113 : 75 82.
5. Anagnostakis SL. 1978. The American Chestnut: new hope for a fallen giant. Bulletin of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven 777.
6. Archer S. 1989. Have southern Texas savannas been converted to woodlands in recent history? The American Naturalist 134 : 545 561.
7. Augustine DJ, Frelich LE. 1998. Effects of white-tailed deer on populations of an understorey forb [Trillium spp.] in fragmented deciduous forests. Conservation Biology 12 : 995 1004.
8. Banjai DS, Bowman DMS. 2006. Forty years of lowland monsoon rainforest expansion in Kakadu National Park, Northern Australia. Biological Conservation 131 : 553 565.
9. Barkham JP. 1992. The effects of coppicing and neglect on the performance of the perennial ground flora. In : Buckley GP, ed. Ecology and management of coppice woodlands. London, UK : Chapman & Hall, 115 146.
10. Barlow J, Overal WL, Araujo IS. 2007. The value of primary, secondary and plantation forests for fruit-feeding butterflies in the Brazilian Amazon. Journal of Applied Ecology 44 : 1001 1012.
11. Barlow J, Peres CA, Henriques LMP, Stouffer PC, Wunderle JM. 2006. The responses of understorey birds to forest fragmentation, logging and wildfires: an Amazonian synthesis. Biological Conservation 128 : 182 192.
12. Batista WB, Platt WJ. 2003. Tree population responses to hurricane disturbance: syndromes in a south-eastern USA old-growth forest. Journal of Ecology 91 : 197 212.
13. Bee JN, Kunstler G, Coomes DA. 2007. Resistance and resilience of New Zealand tree species to browsing. Journal of Ecology 95 : 1014 1026.
14. Birks HJB. 2005. Mind the gap: how open were European primeval forests? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 20 : 154 156.
15. Blakemore R. 1999. Diversity of exotic earthworms in Australia: a status report. In : Ponder W, Lunney D, eds. The other 99%: the conservation and biodiversity of invertebrates. Mosman, Australia : Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, 182 187.
16. Bossuyt B, Hermy M, Deckers J. 1999. Migration of herbaceous plant species across ancient-recent forest ecotones in central Belgium. Journal of Ecology 87 : 628 638.
17. Bottacci A, Brogi L, Bussotti F, Genni E, Clauser F, Ferretti M, Gellini R, Grossoni P, Schiff S. 1988. Inquinamento ambientale e deperimento del bosco in Toscana. Firenze, Italy : Societá Botanica Italiana.
18. Bowman DJMS. 1998. The impact of Aboriginal landscape burning on the Australian biota. New Phytologist 140 : 385 410.
19. Brasier CM. 1999. Phytophthora pathogens of trees: their rising profile in Europe. Forestry Commission Information Note 30. London, UK : HMSO.
20. Bratton SP. 1974. The effect of the European wild boar (Sus scrofa) on the high-elevation vernal flora in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 101 : 198 206.
21. Broadmeadow MSJ, Ray D, Samuel CJA. 2005. Climate change and the future for broadleaved tree populations in Britain. Forestry 78 : 145 161.
22. Brook BW, Bowman DJMS. 2004. The uncertain blitzkrieg of Pleistocene megafauna. Journal of Biogeography 31 : 517 523.
23. Brown AHF, Warr SJ. 1992. The effects of changing management on seed banks in ancient coppices. In : Buckley GP, ed. Ecology and management of coppice woodlands. London, UK : Chapman & Hall, 147 166.
24. Brüggemeier F-J. 2004. Waldsterben: the construction and deconstruction of an environmental problem. In : Mauch C, ed. Nature in German history. New York, NY, USA : Berghahn, 119 131.
25. Burgess KS, Husband BC. 2006. Habitat differentiation and the ecological costs of hybridization: the effects of introduced mulberry (Morus alba) on a native congener (M. rubra). Journal of Ecology 94 : 1061 1069.
26. Bürgi M. 1998. Habitat alterations caused by long-term changes in forest use in northeastern Switzerland. In : Kirby KJ, Watkins C, eds. The ecological history of European forests. Wallingford, UK : CABI, 203 211.
27. Burrows N, Ward B, Robinson A. 1995. Regeneration and flowering responses of plant species in jarrah forest communities. In : Harris J, ed. Burning our Bushland: proceedings of a conference about fire and urban bushland. West Perth, Australia : Urban Bushland Council, 30 33.
28. Burslem DFRP, Whitmore TC, Brown GC. 2000. Short-term effects of cyclone impact and long-term recovery of tropical rain forest on Kolombangara, Solomon Islands. Journal of Ecology 88 : 1063 1078.
29. Catling PC. 1991. Ecological effects of prescribed burning practices on the mammals of southeastern Australia. In : Lunney D, ed. Conservation of Australia's forest fauna. Mosman, Australia : Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, 353 364.
30. Chase A. 1986. Playing God in Yellowstone: the destruction of America's first national park. Boston, MA, USA : Atlantic Monthly.
31. Cooke AS, Farrell LT. 2001. Impact of muntjac deer (Muntiacus reevesi) at Monks Wood National Nature Reserve, Cambridgeshire, eastern England. Forestry 74 : 242 250.
32. Crampton AB, Stutter O, Kirby KJ, Welch RC. 1998. Changes in the composition of Monks Wood National Nature Reserve (Cambridgeshire, UK) 1964-1996. Arboricultural Journal 22 : 229 245.
33. Crogan P. 2005. The use of hypotheses in ecology. Bulletin of the British Ecological Society 36 : 43 45.
34. D'Antonio CM, Vitousek PM. 1992. Biological invasions by exotic grasses, the grass/fire cycle, and global change. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 23 : 63 87.
35. Davelos AL, Jaresz AM. 2004. Demography of American chestnut populations: effects of a pathogen and a hyperparasite. Journal of Ecology 92 : 675 685.
36. Diggs GM Jr., Lipscomb BL, O'Kennon RJ. 1999. Shinners & Mahler's illustrated flora of North Central Texas. Fort Worth, TX, USA : Botanical Research Institute of Texas.
37. Dines T. 2005. Stop picking on bluebells. Botanical Society of the British Isles News 80 : 26 28.
38. Echeverria A, Coomes D, Salus J, Rey-Benayas JM, Lara A, Newton A. 2006. Rapid deforestation and fragmentation of Chilean temperate forests. Biological Conservation 130 : 481 494.
39. Ennos RA. 2001. The introduction of lodgepole pine as a major forest drop in Sweden: implications for host-pathogen interaction. Forest Ecology and Management 141 : 85 96.
40. Fairhead J, Leach M. 1998. Reframing deforestation. London, UK : Routledge.
41. Feber RE, Brereton TM, Warren MS, Oates M. 2001. The impacts of deer on woodland butterflies: the good, the bad and the complex. Forestry 74 : 271 276.
42. Fletcher M-S, Thomas I. 2007. Holocene vegetation and climate change from near Lake Pedder, southwest Tasmania, Australia. Journal of Biogeography 34 : 665 677.
43. Flowerdew JR, Ellwood SA. 2001. Impacts of woodland deer on small mammal ecology. Forestry 74 : 277 287.
44. Fujihara M. 1996. Development of secondary pine forests after pine wilt disease in western Japan. Journal of Vegetation Science 7 : 729 738.
45. Fuller RJ. 1992. Effects of coppice management on woodland breeding birds. In : Buckley GP, ed. Ecology and management of coppice woodlands. London, UK : Chapman & Hall, 169 192.
46. Fuller RJ. 2001. Responses of woodland birds to increasing numbers of deer: a review of evidence and mechanisms. Forestry 74 : 289 298.
47. Gill RMA. 2001. The impact of deer on woodlands: the effects of browsing and seed dispersal on vegetation structure and composition. Forestry 74 : 209 218.
48. Gove B, Power SA, Buckley GP, Ghazoul J. 2007. Effects of herbicide spray drift and fertilizer overspread on selected species of woodland ground flora: comparison between short-term and long-term impact assessments and field surveys. Journal of Applied Ecology 44 : 374 384.
49. Greatorex-Davies JN, Marrs RH. 1992. The quality of coppice woods as habitats for invertebrates. In : Buckley GP, ed. Ecology and management of coppice woodlands. London, UK : Chapman & Hall, 271 296.
50. Grove AT, Rackham O. 2001. The nature of Mediterranean Europe: an ecological history. London, UK : Yale University Press.
51. Gurnell J, Hicks M, Whitbread S. 1992. The effects of coppice management on small mammal populations. In : Buckley GP, ed. Ecology and management of coppice woodlands. London, UK : Chapman & Hall, 213 232.
52. Hæggström C-A. 1998. Pollard meadows: multiple use of human-made nature. In : Kirby KJ, Watkins C, eds. The ecological history of European forests. Wallingford, UK : CABI, 33 41.
53. Hambler C, Speight MR. 1995. Biodiversity conservation in Britain: science replacing tradition. British Wildlife 6 : 137 147. [Reply by O. Rackham, 'The Fashion for Re-Creating Wildwood', Tree News October 1995.]
54. Harmon M. 1982. Fire history of the westernmost portion of Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 109 : 74 79.
55. Hart CE. 1966. Royal Forest; a history of Dean's woods as producers of timber. Oxford, UK : Clarendon.
56. Hauck M. 2008. Epiphytic lichens indicate recent increase in air pollution in the Mongolian capital Ulan Bator. The Lichenologist 40 : 165 168.
57. Hawksworth DL, Henderson A. 1974-2000. Literature on air pollution and lichens I-XLIX. The Lichenologist passim.
58. Hendrix PF, Bohlen PJ. 2002. Exotic earthworm invasions in North America: ecological and policy implications. BioScience 52 : 1 11.
59. Holdenrieder O, Pautasso M, Weisberg PJ, Lonsdale D. 2004. Tree diseases and landscape pathology. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 19 : 446 452.
60. Honnay O, Jacquemyn H, Bossuyt B, Hermy M. 2005. Forest fragmentation effects on patch occupancy and population viability of herbaceous plant species. New Phytologist 166 : 723 736.
61. 2 increase. Plant Ecology 183 : 237 243.
62. Hooper ER, Legendre P, Condit R. 2004. Factors affecting community composition of forested regions in deforested, abandoned land in Panama. Ecology 85 : 3313 3316.
63. Humphrey J, Gill R, Claridge J, eds. 1998. Grazing as a management tool in European forest ecosystems. Edinburgh, UK : Forestry Commission.
64. Iida S, Nakashizuka T. 1995. Forest fragmentation and its effect on species diversity in sub-urban coppice forests in Japan. Forest Ecology and Management 73 : 197 210.
65. Innes JL, Boswell RC. 1987. Forest health surveys 1987. Forestry Commission Bulletins 74, 79.
66. Isagi Y, Kawahara T, Kamo K, Ito H. 1997. Net production and carbon cycling in a bamboo Phyllostachys pubescens stand. Plant Ecology 130 : 41 52.
67. Isagi Y, Torii A. 1998. Range expansion and its mechanisms in a naturalized bamboo species, Phyllostachys pubescens, in Japan. Journal of Sustainable Forestry 6 : 127 141.
68. Jackson WD, Brown MJ. 1999. Pattern and process in the vegetation. In : Reid JB, Hill RS, Brown MJ, Hovenden MJ, eds. Vegetation of Tasmania. Canberra, Australia : Australian Biological Resources Study, 357 380.
69. Kent DH. 1975. The historical flora of Middlesex. London, UK : Ray Society.
70. Kirby KJ, Patterson G. 1992. Ecology and management of semi-natural tree species mixtures. In : Cannell MGR, Malcolm DC, Robertson PA, eds. The ecology of mixed-species stands of trees. Oxford, UK : Blackwell, 188 210.
71. Kirby KJ, Reid CM, Isaac D, Thomas RC. 1998. The ancient woodland inventory in England and its uses. In : Kirby KJ, Watkins C, eds. The ecological history of European forests. Wallingford, UK : CABI, 323 336.
72. Kirby KJ, Smart SM, Black HIJ, Bunce RGH, Corney PM, Snithers RJ. 2005. Long term ecological change in British woodland (1971-2001). English Nature Research Report 653. Peterborough, UK : English Nature.
73. Körner C, Paulsen J. 2004. A world-wide study of high-altitude treeline temperatures. Journal of Biogeography 31 : 713 732.
74. Kullman L. 2002. Rapid recent range-margin rise of tree and shrub species in the Swedish Scandes. Journal of Ecology 90 : 68 77.
75. Large EC. 1940. The advance of the fungi. London, UK : Jonathan Cape.
76. Laurance WF, Bierregard RO Jr. 1997. Tropical forest remnants: ecology, management, and conservation of fragmented communities. Chicago, IL, USA : University of Chicago Press.
77. Macinnes L, Wickham-Jones CR. 1998. All natural things: archaeology and the green debate. Oxbow Monograph 21. Oxford, UK : Oxbow.
78. Malhi Y, Phillips OL. 2005. Tropical forests and global atmospheric change. Oxford, UK : Oxford University Press, 105 127.
79. Manning AD, Fischer J, Lindenmeyer DB. 2006. Scattered trees are keystone structures: implications for conservation. Biological Conservation 132 : 311 321.
80. Mellars P. 1976. Fire ecology, animal populations and man: a study of some ecological relationships in prehistory. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 42 : 15 45.
81. Miller PR, Arbaugh MJ, Temple PJ. 1997. Ozone and its known and potential effects on forests in Western United States. In : Sandermann H, Wellban RL, Heath RL, eds. Forest decline and ozone. Berlin, Germany : Springer, 39 67.
82. Mitchell FJG. 2005. How open were European primeval forests? Hypothesis testing using palaeoecological data. Journal of Ecology 93 : 168 177.
83. Mitchell RJ, Morecroft MD, Acreman M, Crick HQP, Frost M, Harley M, Maclean IMD, Mountford O, Piper J, Pontier H et al. 2007. England biodiversity strategy - towards adaptation to climatic change. DEFRA report CRO327. http://www.defra.gov.uk
84. Mitchell RJ, Truscot AM, Leith ID, Cape JN, van Dijk N, Tang YS, Fowler D, Sutton MA. 2005. A study of the epiphytic communities of Atlantic oak woods along an atmospheric nitrogen gradient. Journal of Ecology 93 : 482 492.
85. Molnár Z. 1998. Interpreting present vegetation features by landscape historical data. In : Kirby KJ, Watkins C, eds. The ecological history of European forests. Wallingford, UK : CABI, 241 263.
86. Moore NW, Hooper MD. 1975. On the number of bird species in British woods. Biological Conservation 8 : 239 250.
87. Morecroft MD, Taylor ME, Ellwood SA, Quinn SA. 2001. Impacts of deer herbivory on ground vegetation at Wytham Woods, central England. Forestry 74 : 251 257.
88. van Nieuwstadt MGL, Sheil D. 2005. Drought, fire and tree survival in a Borneo rain forest, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Journal of Ecology 93 : 191 201.
89. Owen-Smith RN. 1988. Megaherbivores: the influence of very large body size on ecology. Cambridge, UK : Cambridge University Press.
90. Perrins CM, Overall R. 2001. Effect of increasing numbers of deer on bird populations in Wytham Woods, central England. Forestry 74 : 299 309.
91. Peterken GF. 1993. Woodland conservation and management, 2nd edn. London, UK : Chapman & Hall.
92. Peterken GF. 1996. Natural woodland: ecology and conservation in northern temperate regions. Cambridge, UK : Cambridge University Press.
93. Peterken GF. 2001. Ecological effects of introduced tree species in Britain. Forest Ecology and Management 141 : 31 42.
94. Peterken GF. 2005. Natural woodland reserves: 60 years of trying at Lady Park Wood. British Wildlife 17 : 7 16.
95. Peterken GF, Game M. 1984. Historical factors affecting the number and distribution of vascular plant species in the woodlands of central Lincolnshire. Journal of Ecology 72 : 155 182.
96. Peterken GF, Jones EW. 1987. Forty years of change in Lady Park Wood: the old-growth stands. Journal of Ecology 75 : 477 512.
97. Peters BC. 1978. Michigan's oak openings: pioneer perceptions of a vegetative landscape. Journal of Forest History 22 : 18 23.
98. Phillips OL, Baker TR, Arroyo L, Higuchi N, Killeen TJ, Laurance WF, Lewis SL, Lloyd J, Malhi Y, Monteagudo A et al. 2004. Pattern and process in Amazon forest dynamics 1976-2001. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 359 : 381 407.
99. Pinard MA, Cropper WP. 2000. Simulated effects of logging on carbon storage in dipterocarp forest. Journal of Ecology 37 : 267 283.
100. Podger FD. 1972. Phytophthora cinnamomi, a cause of lethal disease in indigenous plant communities in Western Australia. Phytopathology 62 : 972 981.
101. Podger FD, James SH, Mulcahy MJ. 1996. Review of dieback in Western Australia. Perth, Australia : Western Australia Dieback Review Panel.
102. Price S, Moody JA, Nixon L, Rackham O. (in press). The Sphakia archaeological survey. Oxford, UK : Oxford University Press.
103. Prober SM, Thiele KR, Lunt ID, Koen TB. 2005. Restoring ecological function in temperate [Australian] grassy woodlands: manipulating soil nutrients, exotic annuals and native perennial grasses through carbon supplements and spring burns. Journal of Applied Ecology 42 : 1073 1085.
104. Rackham O. 1975. Hayley Wood: its history and ecology. Cambridge, UK : Cambridgeshire 7 Isle of Ely Naturalists' Trust.
105. Rackham O. 1977. Neolithic woodland management in the Somerset Levels: Garvin's, Walton Heath and Rowland's tracks. Somerset Levels Papers 3 : 65 72.
106. Rackham O. 1986. The history of the countryside. London, UK : Dent.
107. Rackham O. 1989. The last forest: the story of Hatfield Forest. London, UK : Dent.
108. Rackham O. 1990. Trees and woodland in the British landscape, 2nd edn. London, UK : Dent.
109. Rackham O. 1992. Mixtures, mosaics and clones: the distribution of trees within European woods and forests. In : Cannell MGR, Malcolm DC, Robertson PA, eds. The ecology of mixed-species stands of trees, Oxford, UK : Blackwell, 1 20.
110. Rackham O. 1998. Savanna in Europe. In : Kirby KJ, Watkins C, eds. The ecological history of European forests. Wallingford, UK : CABI, 1 24.
111. Rackham O. 1999. The woods 30 years on: where have the primroses gone? Nature in Cambridgeshire 41 : 73 87.
112. Rackham O. 2000. Woodland in the Ely Coucher Book. Nature in Cambridgeshire 42 : 37 44, 61 67.
113. Rackham O. 2003. Ancient woodland: its history, vegetation and uses in England, 2nd edn. Dalbeattie, UK : Castlepoint Press.
114. Rackham O. 2006. Woodlands. London, UK : Harper Collins.
115. Rackham O, Coombe DE. 1996. Madingley Wood. Nature in Cambridgeshire 38 : 27 54.
116. Rackham O, Moody JA. 1996. The making of the Cretan landscape. Manchester, UK : Manchester University Press.
117. Reilly MJ, Wimberley MC, Newell CL 2006. Wildfire effects on plant species richness at multiple scales in forest communities of the southern Appalachians. Journal of Ecology 94 : 118 130.
118. Rooney TE. 2001. Deer impacts on forest ecosystems: a North American perspective. Forestry 74 : 201 208.
119. Rooney TP, Waller DM. 2003. Direct and indirect effects of white-tailed deer in forest ecosystems. Forest Ecology and Management 181 : 165 176.
120. Roosevelt AC. 1980. Parmana: prehistoric manioc and maize subsistence along the Amazon and Orinoco. New York, NY, USA : Academic Press.
121. Root TL, Price JT, Hall KR, Schneider SH, Rosenzweig C, Pounds A. 2003. Fingerprints of global warming on wild animals and plants. Nature 421 : 57 60.
122. Russell-Smith J, Stanton PJ, Whitehead PJ, Edwards A. 2004. Rain forest invasion of eucalypt-dominated woodland savanna, Iron Range, north-eastern Australia. I, II. Journal of Biogeography 31 : 1293 1316.
123. Saxe H, Cannell MGR, Johnsen Ø, Ryan MG, Vourlitis G. 2001. Tree and forest functioning in response to global warming. New Phytologist 149 : 369 400.
124. Sell PD. 2006. Introduced 'look-alikes' and other difficult introduced plants in our Cambridgeshire flora. Nature in Cambridgeshire 48 : 46 53.
125. Smout TC, MacDonald AR, Watson F. 2005. A history of the native woodlands of Scotland. Edinburgh, UK : Edinburgh University Press.
126. Stewart AJA. 2001. The impact of deer on lowland woodland invertebrates: a review of the evidence and priorities for future research. Forestry 74 : 259 270.
127. Tabor RCC. 1997. The effects of Muntjac deer (Muntiacus reevesi) and Fallow deer (Dama dama) on the Oxlip. Deer 11 : 14 19.
128. Terborgh J, Feeley K, Silman M, Nuñez P, Balukhan B. 2006. Vegetation dynamics of predator-free land-bridge islands. Journal of Ecology 94 : 253 263.
129. Thomas RC. 1998. Ecological changes in Bernwood Forest - woodland management in the present millennium. In : Kirby KJ, Watkins C, eds. The ecological history of European forests. Wallingford, UK : CABI, 225 240.
130. Thorley A. 1981. Pollen analytical evidence relating to the vegetation history of the Chalk. Journal of Biogeography 8 : 93 106.
131. Vera FWM. 2002. Grazing ecology and forest history. Wallingford, UK : CABI.
132. Warren MS, Thomas JA. 1992. Butterfly responses to coppicing. In : Buckley GP, ed. Ecology and management of coppice woodlands. London, UK : Chapman & Hall, 249 270.
133. Watt AS. 1925. On the ecology of the British beechwoods. II. The development and structure of beech communities on the South Downs. Journal of Ecology 12 : 145 204 13 : 27 73.
134. Watt AS. 1934. The vegetation of the Chiltern Hills, with special reference to the beechwoods and their seral relationships. Journal of Ecology 22 : 230 270, 445 507.
135. Weaver M, Kellman M. 1981. The effects of forest fragmentation on woodlot tree biotas in Southern Ontario. Journal of Biogeography 8 : 199 210.
136. Webster CR, Jenkins MA, Rock JH. 2005. Long-term response of spring flora to chronic herbivory and deer exclusion in Great Smoky Mountains National Park, USA. Biological Conservation 125 : 297 307.
137. Wells K, Kalke EKV, Lakin MB, Pfeiffer M. 2007. Effects of rain forest logging on species richness and assemblage composition of small mammals in Southeast Asia. Journal of Biogeography 34 : 1087 1099.
138. Whitehouse NJ. 2006. The Holocene British and Irish ancient forest fossil beetle fauna: implications for forest history, biodiversity and faunal colonisation. Quaternary Science Reviews 25 : 1755 1789.
139. 2 increases from pre-industrial levels. Nature, London 327 : 617 618.
140. Yokoyama S, Maeji I, Ueda T, Ando M, Shibata E. 2001. Impact of bark stripping by sika deer, Cervus nippon, on subalpine coniferous forests in central Japan. Forest Ecology and Management 140 : 93 99.