Condition(s) for island autonomy

International Journal on Minority and Group Rights

Volumn 15, Issue 2-3, 2008, Pages 227-258

  Ackrén, Maria ^a   Olausson, Pär M ^b  

^a ÅBO AKADEMI UNIVERSITY   (Finland)

^b MID SWEDEN UNIVERSITY   (Sweden)

Author keywords

Economy; Ethnicity; Geographical distance; Island autonomy; Multi Value QCA (MVQCA); Population size

Indexed keywords

AUTONOMY; COMPARATIVE STUDY; ECONOMIC IMPACT; ETHNICITY; GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION; ISLAND; POPULATION SIZE; QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS;

ATLANTIC ISLANDS; ATLANTIC OCEAN; AZORES; EURASIA; EUROPE; FAROE ISLANDS; ISLE OF MAN; MACARONESIA; PORTUGAL; SOUTHERN EUROPE; UNITED KINGDOM; WESTERN EUROPE;

EID: 53849143234     PISSN: 13854879     EISSN: 15718115     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/157181108X332613     Document Type: Article

References (105)

1. H. Hannum, Autonomy, Sovereignty, and Self-Determination, revised edition (University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1996) p. 333.
2. Y. Ghai, 'Ethnicity and Autonomy: A Framework for Analysis', in Y. Ghai (ed.), Autonomy and Ethnicity (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000) pp. 1-26.
3. Ibid., pp. 8-9.
4. Ibid., pp. 14-25.
5. G. Brunner and H. Küpper, 'European Options of Autonomy: A Typology of Autonomy Models of Minority Self-Governance', in K. Gál (ed.), Minority Governance in Europe (Local Government and Public Service Reform Initiative, Open Society Institute, Budapest, 2002) p. 21.
6. M. Ackrén, Territoriella autonomier i världen - En empirisk studie av de självstyrda områdena i världen (Ålands fredsinstitut, Mariehamn, 2005) p. 72. The figure is a little bit arbitrary since it derives from a different type of study and the definition of autonomy is somewhat different than the definition used in this context. There might thus be more than 36 island autonomies in the world.
7. Alternative factors such as regime change, international involvement or other factors are not considered in this study since our study is more of an inductive approach and just partly based on the literature in this case.
8. 0,..., cin-N} differ only in the causal condition C with n possible values yet produce the same outcome, then the causal condition C that distinguishes these n expressions can be considered irrelevant and can be removed to create a simpler, combined expression, if there is no expression implied by the new expression Φ producing a different outcome." MVQCA has mainly been developed as a response on the critique of dichotomization in QCA. It can be used to solve the problem of information loss that might be a problem with dummy variables, but it may also solve the problem of contradictory configurations. However, the researcher should be careful in using too fine graded variables in MVQCA since this might be an obstacle to meaningful minimization (p. 7).
9. Fuzzy-set analysis is a technique which combines qualitative and quantitative approaches. The method is used in various disciplines, and it has also been introduced to social sciences as a new tool for developing theories and assumptions and to connect the ideas and evidences in social research. See C. C. Ragin, Fuzzy-Set Social Science (The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2000) pp. 3-4. Fuzzy-set is derived from set theory within mathematical science. The values used are always in an interval between 0 and 1.
10. See P. Pennings, 'Beyond Dichotomous Explanations: Explaining Constitutional Control of the Executive with Fuzzy-sets', 42 European Journal of Political Research (2003) p. 542. The value 1 indicates full membership in a class or set, while value 0 indicates full non-membership. Ragin, supra within this footnote, p. 6. It is up to the investigator to choose the values in between 0 and 1, but it must always be done openly and explicitly so that other researchers can test and evaluate the whole fuzzy-set table. Ragin, supra within this footnote. Fuzzy-set implies both differences in kind and degree at the same time. Ragin, supra within this footnote, p. 149,
11. and J. Kvist, 'Welfare Reform in the Nordic Countries in the 1990s: Using Fuzzy-Set Theory to Assess Conformity to Ideal Types', 9:3 Journal of European Social Policy (1999) p. 234. The value of 0.5 is applied as the benchmark between what is fully in according with a specific set and what is fully out according to a set. Ragin, supra within this footnote, p. 157. To construct a fuzzy-set table it is necessary to specify qualitative benchmarks on a continuum (between 0 and 1). This means that the researcher has to combine fuzzy values with substantive and theoretical criteria. The method's goal is to establish a better fit between theory and data. It enhances the dialogue between ideas and evidences. Ragin, supra within this footnote, pp. 160-162. Fuzzy membership scores address the varying degree to which different cases belong to sets, not how cases rank relative to each other on dimensions of open-ended variation. Fuzzy-sets pinpoint qualitative approaches while at the same time assessing varying degrees of membership between full inclusion and full exclusion. In this sense, fuzzy-set can be seen as a continuous variable that has been calibrated to indicate the degree of membership in a defined set.
12. See C.C. Ragin and P. Penning, 'Fuzzy Sets and Social Research', 33:4 Sociological Methods & Research (May 2005) p. 424. We will use fuzzy-set as a control mechanism in this sense, since we use MVQCA in a rather extreme way. AU independent variables are graded into several values, while the dependent variable is held dichotomized in our MVQCA analysis. This calls for control; all the variables are recorded into a fuzzy scale and run as one and a single analysis. We then compare the results to see if we get any diversity between the two forms of analyses.
13. There are two software programmes developed that deal with QCA. The first one, fs/QCA©, was originally developed by Charles Ragin and Chris Drass but has been updated by Ragin and Sean Davey and deals with QCA crisp-set analysis and fuzzy-set analysis. The second programme, Tosmana, is developed by Lasse Cronqvist and deals with QCA and MVQCA. The analysis will be performed primarily through Tosmana since this programme can handle MVQCA. For the cases with missing values on the GDP/capita variable, the programme tests each possible value for that variable. The software programmes are available online on the COMPASSS homepage and can be downloaded free of charge: 〈www.compasss.org〉.
14. See e.g. Ackrén, supra note 6 and P. M. Olausson, Autonomy and Islands - A Global Study of the Factors that Determine Island Autonomy (Åbo Akademi University Press, Åbo, 2007).
15. For a more thorough elaboration about geographical distances, see Olausson, supra note 11, pp. 74-75.
16. 〈www.googleearth.com〉.
17. Anthropology is a discipline about humankind at large and can be divided into several sub-fields such as social and cultural anthropology. The concept of culture is the base of anthropology as we understand it and relates to the systems, norms, rules, standards and patterns implicit in the social structure, behaviours and artifacts of society. In the 1960s it became standard to differ between ethnicity and race within the discipline as a response to the cross-cultural problems of colonial administration. See e.g. S. S. Nagel (ed.), Encyclopedia of Policy Studies 1983 (Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, 1983) pp. 215-216.
18. T. H. Eriksen, Ethnicity & Nationalism -Anthropological Perspectives (Pluto Press, London, 1993) pp. 1-6.
19. Ibid., p. 47.
20. A. Giddens, Sociologi, volume 2 (Studentlitteratur, Lund, 1994) p. 52.
21. B. Hettne, Etniska konflikter och internationella relationer (Padrigu Papers, Göteborg, 1990) pp. 22-24.
22. B.Vizi, 'Minority Groups and Autonomy from an International Political Perspective', in Gál, supra note 5, p. 41.
23. Ghai, supra note 2, p. 4.
24. Eriksen, supra note 15, pp. 47-53.
25. There might be measurement problems since ethnicity is a subjective concept. In this study we take a nationalistic approach, i.e., how the states have defined their minority groups or the different ethnic characteristics. It is not possible to go into more depth in this case. A study about ethnic diversities should then become a study of its own.
26. G. Baldacchino, 'Jurisdictional Self-Reliance for Small Island Territories', Issue 365 The Round Table (2002) p. 351.
27. D. Milne, 'Ten Lessons for Economic Development in Small Jurisdictions', Lessons from the Edge, The North Atlantic Islands Programme, February (2000), IIS, UPEI, Canada, p. 4.
28. R. Read and H. W. Armstrong, "The Implications of Increasing Globalisation & Regionalism for the Economic Growth of Small States', paper presented at Islands of the World VII Conference: New Horizons in Island Studies, 26-30 June 2002, UPEI, Canada.
29. Milne, supra note 24, pp. 8-9.
30. Read and Armstrong, supra note 25.
31. L. Lyck, "The Small Nordic Jurisdictions', Working Papers 1, 1997, NordREFO, pp. 8-10.
32. The World Bank, 〈www.web.worldbank.org〉.
33. See P. Olausson, Aspects of Autonomy - The European Island Regions', unpublished paper presented at the 2nd International Conference on Regional Autonomy and Ethnic Minorities, Uppsala, Sweden, 10-13 June 2004.
34. D. Anckar, 'Världens små östater: Population jämte jämförelsepopulationer', Meddelanden från Ekonomisk-statsvetenskapliga fakulteteten vid Åbo Akademi (Åbo Akademi, Åbo, 1991).
35. Ibid., pp. 11-22.
36. J. Duursma, Self-determination, Statehood and International Relations of Microstates: The Cases of Liechtenstein, San Marino, Monaco, Andorra and the Vatican City (University of Leyden, Leyden, 1996).
37. Ibid., pp. 2-3.
38. Ibid.
39. Ibid., pp. 134-142.
40. P. Sutton and A. Payne, 'Lilliput Under Threat: The Security Problems of Small Island and Enclave Developing States', XLI:4 Political Studies (1993) pp. 579-593.
41. Ibid.
42. B. Bartmann, The Microstate Experience: Very Small States in the International System (2000), 〈www.fo-dk.dk/Baggrund/ microstate_experience.htm〉.
43. Cluster analysis is a method which is appropriate to use when the members/units of the population are widely scattered geographically. See e.g. N. A. Weiss (ed.), Introductory Statistics, 7th edition (Pearson Addison Wesley, Boston, 2005) pp. 18-19.
44. This will be done in the TOSMANA programme. As for distance, mean values are not so suitable in this case since the variations between the cases are large. The cluster analysis will help to sort the cases in various groups or categories since the distances between the cases are considered in this kind of analysis.
45. C.P. Amaral, 'Identification of an Autonomous Region - The Azores', in The Political Administrative Systems of the European Island Regions (Secretariat Regional da Administração Interna, Ponta Delgada, 1992) pp. 3-4.
46. J. Dunn, A Grammar of Portuguese Language (London, 1930) pp. 81-82,
47. and C. P. Amaral, 'Roots of Azorean Autonomy and Identity', in An Island Living (Institute of Island Studies, Prince Edward Island, Canada, 1992) p. 16.
48. Amaral, ibid., pp. 16-20.
49. Ibid., pp. 39-47.
50. Ibid., pp. 48-51.
51. R. Aldrich and J. Connell, The Last Colonies (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1998) pp. 268-269.
52. CIA, The World Factbook 2006, 〈www.cia.gov/library/ publications/the-world-factbook/index.html〉
53. J. H. Goodlad, "The Faroese Road to Autonomy: An Analysis of the Faroese Political System', reprinted in Shetland Life (1987) p. 2.
54. Ibid., p. 9; J. Morkore, 'Class Interests and Nationalism in Faroese Politics', 3:1 North Atlantic Studies (1991) p. 62;
55. J. A. Jensen, 'The Position of Greenland and the Faroe Islands Within the Danish Realm', 9:2 European Public Law (2003) p. 171.
56. Goodlad, supra note 49, p. 9, and Morkore, ibid., p. 62.
57. Goodlad, supra note 49, p. 10;
58. Morkore, supra note 50, p. 62;
59. À. Olafsson, 'Constitutionalism and Economics in the Faroes', in G. Baldacchino and D. Milne (eds.), Lessons from the Political Economy of Small Islands: The Resourcefulness of Jurisdiction (University of Prince Edward Island, New York, St. Martin's Press in association with Institute of Island Studies, Canada, 2000) pp. 124-125.
60. Goodlad, supra note 49, p. 12;
61. Morkore, supra note 50, p. 62.
62. See also Lov nr. 578, Om de Fœrøiske myndigheders overtagelse of sager og sagsområder, from 24 June 2005, 〈www.logir.fo/foldb/lov/2005/0000578.htm〉, visited on 9 July 2007,
63. and Lov nr. 579, Om Fœrøernes landsstyres ingåelse af folkeretlige aftaler, from 24 June 2005, 〈www.logir.fo/foldb/lov/2005/0000579.htm〉, visited on 9 July 2007.
64. Lov nr. 578,
65. ibid.
66. H. Hannum, Possibilities for Increased Faroese Autonomy (1999), available at 〈www.macmeekin.com/Library/Jurisds/Faroe%20Islands.htm〉.
67. Lov nr. 578, supra note 53.
68. Ibid.
69. Føroyiskt Fullveldi (2003), What We Want and Why We Want It and Faroese People to Decide the Future Status of Their Nation, 〈www.grundlog.fo〉, visited on 11 June 2003, controlled on 9 July 2007.
70. Jensen, supra note 50, pp. 176-178. The transfers from the Danish government cover about two-thirds of the Faroese budget; so this issue is very sensitive.
71. Logmannskrivstovan, 〈www.tinganes.fo〉, visited on 19 January 2005.
72. This refers to the distribution of powers between Denmark and the Faroes since a new legislation has been adopted by Denmark in 2005.
73. Lov nr. 579, supra note 53.
74. M. Solly, Government and Law in the Isle of Man (Parallel Books, Castletown, 1994) p. 3.
75. CIA, The World Factbook 2006, supra note 48.
76. J. L. Mackenzie, 'Western Europe', in C. Moseley and R. E. Asher (eds.), Atlas of the World Languages (Routledge, London, 1994) p. 251.
77. Solly, supra note 63, p. 11.
78. Ibid., pp. 44-46.
79. R. H. Kinvig, The Isle of Man: A Social, Cultural, and Political History (Liverpool University Press, Liverpool, 1993) pp. 29-31.
80. Ibid., pp. 58-66.
81. Solly, supra note 63, pp. 52-55.
82. Ibid., pp. 48-65.
83. Ibid., pp. 55-59.
84. L. Bennich, 'Rättsystemet i kungadömet Man', Svensk Juristtidning, häfte 6 (1988) pp. 497-498.
85. Kinvig, supra note 68, pp. 114-115
86. and Solly, supra note 63, pp. 65-68.
87. Kinvig, supra note 68, pp. 156-159
88. and Solly, supra note 63, pp. 69-70.
89. Solly, supra note 63, pp. 81-83.
90. See Protocol No. 3 on the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man.
91. O. H. Phillips et at., Constitutional and Administrative Law (Sweet & Maxwell, London, 2001) pp. 767-769.
92. Ibid., p. 769. See also European Court of Human Rights, Tyrer v. The United Kingdom, 25 April 1978, ECHR, no. 5856/72, Series A, no. 26, paras. 13-16, in which the United Kingdom was held responsible for a violation of Article 3(3) of the European Convention on Human Rights because a whipping punishment, amounting to degrading treatment, had been imposed and executed under the criminal law of the autonomous Isle of Man, legislation that the Parliament of England could not affect.
93. See G. Oostindie, 'Dependence and Autonomy in Sub-National Island Jurisdictions: The Case of the Kingdom of the Netherlands', 95:386 The Round Table: The Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs (2006) pp. 609-626 for recent developments regarding Aruba and the Netherlands' Antilles.
94. Sources: Ackrén, supra note 6, pp. 77, 106-107;
95. CIA, The World Factbook 2006, supra note 48;
96. Olausson, supra note 11.
97. Sources: Olausson, supra note 11;
98. CIA, The World Factbook 2006, supra note 48; 〈en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Jeju〉; 〈www.explorecrete.com/〉; 〈www.gotland.se/ imcms/25327〉; 〈www.letsgohonduras.com/islasdelabahia_eng.html〉; 〈www.britannica.com/eb/article-9049956〉; 〈www.interkriti.org/ intro.htm#economy〉; 〈www.eurisles.com/〉.
99. See Appendix 1.
100. Source: CIA, The World Factbook 2006, supra note 48.
101. For more information about this technique, see Appendix 2.
102. See also Appendix 3.
103. As in all analysis it is important to test for necessity and sufficiency, i.e., which, if any, variable or variables that are necessary conditions for the outcome and which are sufficient. A necessary cause is one that is always present in all combinations that produce a certain outcome. Necessary causes thereby works backwards. First one must isolate the cases that produce the same outcome and then look for any condition that is present in all the cases. In this context this would imply an analysis of all the autonomous islands to see whether or not there are one or more conditions that is present in all cases. There are two ways of testing for necessity: veristic and probabilistic. The veristic way allows no discordant outcomes and is performed directly from the truth table. By dividing the cases into two groups one can easily identify whether or not there are any conditions that are common for all cases. The probabilistic way is based on the same principle as statistical analysis. First one needs to set up benchmarks for the test. Ragin identifies three possible benchmarks; "more necessary than not" (.5), "usually necessary" (.65) and "almost always necessary" (0.80). Ragin, supra note 9, pp. 131-132.
104. 4 -1 = 80 combinations must be tested to find which ones only produce one single outcome. As the necessity test, the sufficiency test can be performed in a veristic and a probabilistic way. The probabilistic way or the z-test involves, as for the necessity test, a one-tailed test at 0.05 significance level for testing "almost always sufficient".The researcher needs to set up a proportion for cases showing the outcome to see if it is "almost always sufficient" (.80), "usually sufficient" (.65) or "more sufficient than not" (.50). (Ragin, supra note 9, pp. 132-133).
105. The veristic sufficiency test uses either frequency thresholds to evaluate the strength of the evidence, or Boolean minimization. The latter one is used to reduce the primitive expressions and simplify the complexity. Ragin states, in C. C. Ragin, The Comparative Method: Moving Beyond Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1987) p. 93, that "[i]f two Boolean expressions differ in only one causal condition yet produce the same outcome, then the causal condition that distinguishes the two expressions can be considered irrelevant and can be removed to create a simpler, combined expression". Boolean minimization is used in order to find the lowest common denominator that explains the development of autonomy, i.e., Abe combined with ABC produces A and ABC and AbC produce AC. Ragin, Comparative Method supra within this footnote, pp. 85-101, and Ragin, supra note 9, pp. 133-134. The extension of this rule for MVQCA has already been discussed.