Hormones and the Bolsheviks: From organotherapy to experimental endocrinology, 1918-1929

ISIS

Volumn 99, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 486-518

  Krementsov, Nikolai ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HORMONE;

BIOLOGICAL THERAPY; ENDOCRINOLOGY; HISTORY; HUMAN; IDEOLOGY; REVIEW; RUSSIAN FEDERATION;

COMMUNISM; ENDOCRINOLOGY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HORMONES; HUMANS; ORGANOTHERAPY; RUSSIA;

EID: 53649105604     PISSN: 00211753     EISSN: 15456994     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/591710     Document Type: Review

References (189)

1. V. D. Shervinskii, "Rech' pri otkrytii Rossiiskogo endokrinologicheskogo obshchestva," Vestnik Endokrinologie 1925, 7(1):67-76, on p. 67.
2. See Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic, 1982), esp. Ch. 3, "The Consolidation of Authority," pp. 79-144. The question of what constitutes "internal" and "external" spheres for a discipline requires further clarification. Depending on the specific purpose of the analysis, one can distinguish multiple distinct "internal" and "external" spheres in which creators of a discipline need to build up consensus and establish legitimacy. One can, for instance, treat the national scene as an "internal" and the international one as an "external" sphere. At the same time, one can treat the emerging disciplinary community as an "internal" sphere and the established or competing community as an "external" one. Furthermore, one can treat science as a whole as an "internal" sphere and society at large as an "external" one.
3. See, e.g., Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life: The Social Construction of Scientific Facts (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press, 1976);
4. Everett Mendelsohn, Peter Weingart, and Richard Whitley, eds., The Social Production of Scientific Knowledge (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1977);
5. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura, eds., The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in Twentieth-Century Life Sciences (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press, 1992);
6. Andrew R. Pickering, ed., Science as Practice and Culture (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1992);
7. and Robert E. Kohler, Lords of the Fly (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1994).
8. See, e.g., Charles Rosenberg, "Toward an Ecology of Knowledge: On Discipline, Context, and History," in No Other Gods: On Science and American Social Thought (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1997), pp. 225-239;
9. Gerard Lemaine, Roy MacLeod, Michael Mulkay, and Peter Weingart, eds., Perspectives on the Emergence of Scientific Disciplines (Chicago: Aldine, 1976);
10. liana Löwy, "The Strength of Loose Concepts - Boundary Concepts, Federative Experimental Strategies, and Disciplinary Growth: The Case of Immunology," History of Science, 1992, 50:371-396;
11. Ellen Messer-Davidow, David Sylvan, and David R. Shumway, eds., Knowledges: Historical and Critical Studies in Disciplinarity (Charlottesville: Univ. Virginia Press, 1993);
12. Mary Jo Nye, From Chemical Philosophy to Theoretical Chemistry: Dynamics of Matter and Dynamics of Disciplines, 1800-1850 (Berkeley: Univ. California Press, 1993);
13. and Timothy Lenoir, Instituting Science: The Cultural Production of Scientific Disciplines (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press, 1997).
14. See, e.g., Pnina G. Abir-Am, "The Politics of Macromolecules: Molecular Biologists, Biochemists, and Rhetoric," in Science after '40, ed. Arnold Thackray, Osiris, 2nd Ser., 1992, 7:164-191;
15. "The Historical Ethnography of Scientific Rituals" [special issue], Social Epistemology, 1992, 6(4);
16. and Nikolai Krementsov, Stalinist Science (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press, 1997).
17. L. Galuzinskii, O znachenii nadpochechnykh zhelez v zhivotnom organizme (St. Petersburg: P. A. Kulish, 1862). For a comprehensive overview of the intellectual development of research on internal secretion see Victor Cornelius Medvei, The History of Clinical Endocrinology: A Comprehensive Account of Endocrinology from Earliest Times to the Present Day (Pearl River, N.Y.: Parthenon, 1993).
18. For a short essay on the history of Russian research on internal secretions see D. M. Rossiiskii, "Ocherk istorii razvitiia endokrinologii v Rossii," Mediko-Biologicheskii Zhurnal, 1926, 7:64-72.
19. The same author also compiled a complete bibliography of Russian publications on endocrinology from 1860 to 1926, which includes more than two thousand entries. See Rossiiskii, Sistematicheskii ukazatel' russkoi literatury po endokrinologii i organoterapii ot ee vozniknoveniia do 1926 g. (Moscow/Leningrad: Gosizdat, 1926); and Rossiiskii, "Sistematicheskii ukazatel' russkoi literatury po endokrinologii i organoterapii za 1926 god," Med.-Biol. Zh., 1928, 2(Suppl.):1-19.
20. On Brown-Séquard and the rise of organotherapy see Merriley Borell, "Brown-Séquard's Organotherapy and Its Appearance in America at the End of the Nineteenth Century," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 1976, 50:309-320;
21. Borell, "Organotherapy, British Physiology, and Discovery of the Internal Secretions," Journal of the History of Biology, 1976, 9:235-268;
22. and Borell, "Organotherapy and the Emergence of Reproductive Endocrinology," ibid., 1985, 78:1-30.
23. For the only English-language account of the Russian pharmaceutical industry see Mary Schaeffer Conroy, In Health and Sickness: Pharmacy, Pharmacists, and the Pharmaceutical Industry in Late Imperial, Early Soviet Russia (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1994). Unfortunately, this book contains very little information on Pel's and Ferrein's firms and even less on organotherapy.
24. On the research initiated by the pharmaceutical firms see A. V. Pel', Spermin: Novoe stimuliruiushchee sredstvo (St. Petersburg: Ettinger, 1890);
25. and A. von Poehl, J. Tarchanoff, Alfred von Poelil, and P. Wachs, Rational Organotherapy with Reference to Urosemiology (London: Churchill, 1906).
26. For a contemporary account of Pel's laboratory see A. V. Pel', "Obzor 25-letnei deiatel'nosti Khimicheskoi laboratorii prof. doktora khimii Pelia," Zhurnal Meditsinskoi Khimii i Farmatsii, 1898, 79-20:245-262.
27. For a brief historical account of Pel's involvement with organotherapy see Ingrid Kastner, "Alexander Poelil (1850-1908) und die Organotherapie," in Von Samuel Gottleib Reise durch Russland bis zum Niedergang Apothekerfamilie Poehl, ed. Regine Pfrepper, Kastner, and Dietriech von Engelhardt (Aachen: Shaker, 2001), pp. 251-271.
28. See Ukazatel' 1-oi oblastnoi vystavki kozovodstva (Moscow, 1914), pp. 22-23.
29. Tobolkin's 1925 curriculum vitae, preserved in the archives, is very opaque on details of his prerevolutionary life and career. See the State Archive of the Russian Federation (GARF), fond [collection] A-482, opis' [directory] 41, delo [file] 3347, listy [pages] 2-6;
30. hereafter such references will be given as GARF, f. A-482, op. 41, d. 3347, ll. 2-6. I am indebted to the archive's staff for help in locating relevant documents in its enormous holdings. I am also grateful to Tobolkin's niece, Ol'ga Georgievna Amerikova, for clarifying certain details of her uncle's life and granting the access to the family photographs, as well as for permission to use them in this publication.
31. For the history of the Veterinary Institute in Kazan' see Istoriia Kazanskogo gosudarstvennogo veterinarnogo instituta imeni N. E. Baumana: Ocherki (Kazan': Tatarskoe Knizhnoe Izdatel'stvo, 1973).
32. On the entrance requirements for such institutes see A. E. Ivanov, Vysshaia shkola Rossii v kontse XIX-nachale XX veka (Moscow, 1991), pp. 91-93;
33. and T. I. Mineeva, Istoriia veterinarii (St. Petersburg: Lan', 2005) (the figures for 1910 can be found on p. 230).
34. In 1893 the Kazan' institute had only 212 students in toto: Mineeva, Istoriia veterinarii, p. 228. This volume offers a brief survey of the history of Russian veterinary science and education.
35. For the addresses of Tobolkin's houses and the veterinary clinic at various dates see Vsia Moskva (Moscow: A. S. Suvorin, 1899), pp. 271, 722;
36. Vsia Moskva (Moscow: A. S. Suvorin, 1900), pp. 321-322, 849;
37. and Vsia Moskva (Moscow: A. S. Suvorin, 1910), p. 435. Regarding his work, for the Moscow zoo see I. V. Korneev, "Zoologicheskaia epopeia, (1890-1910)," on the Web site of the Leningrad zoo: http://www.lenzoo.rti. (accessed. 15 Jan. 2006).
38. On his role in the Russian Society for Goat Breeding see Rossiiskoe Kozovodstvo, 1911, 6:14.
39. Regarding the numerous requests for the milk see GARF, f. A-482, op. 25, d. 18, l. 2. On the display of the goat see M. S. Karpov, "Pervaia vystavka moskovskogo otdela Rossiiskogo obshchestva kozovodstva," Ross. Kozovodstvo, 1911, 5:4-7. In Russia, hyperthyroidism was called Basedow's disease after the German physician Carl Adolph Basedow (1799-1854), who in 1840 produced a classic description of its symptoms. In English-speaking countries it was known as Graves' disease, after the Irish physician Robert James Graves (1796-1853).
40. See Rossiiskoe Sel'sko-Khoziastvennoe Zhivotttovodstvo i Rossiiskoe Kozovodstvo, 1912, 5:17-18.
41. See, e.g., D. Burghart, "Beitrage zur Organotherapie," Deutsche Meditzinische Wochenschrift, 1899, 25:610-611, 627-629;
42. and Otto Lanz, "Weitere Mitteilung uber serotherapeutische Behandlung des Morbus Basedowii," Muenchener Meditzinische Wochenschrift, 1903, 50(4):146-149.
43. See "Moloko ot koz s udalennymi shchitovidnymi zhelezami kak lechebnoe sredstvo pri Basedovoi bolezni," in Ukazatel' 1-oi oblastnoi vystavki kozovodstva (Moscow, 1914), pp. 29-30.
44. See N. Babushkin, "K voprosu o moloke destrumirovannykh koz i izmeneniiakli v obmene veshchestv u operirovannykh," in Ukazatel' 1-oi oblastnoi vystavki kozovodstva, pp. 24-27.
45. For a brief biography see A. M. Tsiklik, V. D. Shervinskii (Moscow: Meditsina, 1978). Shervmskii's memoirs are preserved in the Historical Museum of the Sechenov Moscow Medical Academy (HMMMA), OF 605/699;
46. NVF 737/295. I am grateful to the museum staff for help in locating relevant documents.
47. For his doctoral dissertation see V. D. Shervinskii, O zhirovoi embolii (Moscow: A. Gattsuk, 1879).
48. On the clinical importance of internal secretions see Shervinskii, "O vnutrennei sekretsii i ee klinicheskom znachenii," Meditsinskoe Obozrenie, 1910, 75(11):1035-1074;
49. for the autopsy report see Shervinskii, "K voprosu ob izmeneniiakh v organizme tireodektomirovannoi kozy," Trudy Moskovskogo Terapevticheskogo Obshchestva, 1913, p. 224.
50. V. D. Shervinskii, "O lechenii bazedovoi bolezni," Voprosy Nauchnoi Meditsiny, 1913, 5-6:465-496.
51. St. Petersburg was renamed Petrograd, at the beginning of World War I in 1914; in 1924 it was renamed. Leningrad; and it regained its original name - St. Petersburg - in 1991.
52. The name of this agency is more accurately translated as "People's Commissariat of Health Protection." For the sake of convenience, however, I have used its traditional English name: "People's Commissariat of Public Health."
53. See Susan G. Solomon and John F. Hutchinson, eds., Health and Society in Revolutionary Russia (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1990).
54. GARF, f. A-482, op. 1, d. 98, ll. 45.
55. See the Bonch-Bruevich collection in the Manuscript Division of the Russian State Library in Moscow (OR RGB), f. 369. I am grateful to Marina Sorokina for calling my attention to this collection.
56. Bauman would attain a "saint's" status as a martyr of the first Russian revolution of 1904-1905, and after the Bolshevik revolution the Kazan' Veterinary Institute would be given his name. For a biography of Bauman see M. A. Novoselov, Nikolai Emestovich Bauman (Moscow: Molodaia Gvardiia, 1955).
57. Regarding the police surveillance of Tobolkin in 1904-1905 see GARF, f. 102, op. 3, d. 383, 1. 1, d. 880, l. 4;
58. op. OO-1905, d. 104, part 6, ll. 8, 13-13 rev. I am grateful to Marina Sorokina for calling my attention to this collection. For his characterization as "politically unreliable" see GARF, f. 102, op. OO-1907, d. 9, part 35, l. 185.
59. They would also prove useful later on. During the "cultural revolution" of the early 1930s Tobolkin's loyalty to the Bolshevik regime was questioned, as was that of many other "bourgeois specialists." Apparently to exonerate himself, Tobolkin referred to his association with Nikolai Bauman during the first Russian revolution. To check out his claims, a special commission set up to investigate his conduct sent an inquiry to another Bauman - Karl Bauman, the head of the Communist Party Central Committee Science Department. Although Karl Bauman could, not confirm Tobolkin's early involvement with the Bolshevik Party, the investigation was terminated. The documents relating to this episode are preserved in Tobolkin's personal file in the Narkomzdrav archive; see GARF, f. A-482, op. 41, d. 3347.
60. OR RGB, f. 369, karton 212, d. 14, l. 1. Regarding Bonch-Bruevich's friendship with Lenin see his memoirs: V. D. Bonch-Bruevich, V. I. Lenin v Petrograde i v Moskve (Moscow: Politizdat, 1955).
61. GARF, f. A-482, op. 1, d. 98, l. 48.
62. GARF, f. A-482, op. 1, d. 98, l. 59.
63. GARF, f. A-482, op. 25, d. 18, l. 2;
64. and GARF, f. A-482, op. 1, d. 98, ll. 75.
65. GARF, f. A-482, op. 25, d. 18, ll. 4-7 rev.
66. GARF, f. A-482, op. 1, d. 82, ll. 205, 207-207 rev.
67. For the Collegium's questions about the expansion of the farm see GARF, f. A-482, op. 1, d. 82, l. 193. On the early history of GINZ see the special volume issued for its fifth anniversary: L. A. Tarasevich and V. A. Liubarskii, eds., Gosudarstvennyi institut narodnogo zdravookhraneniia imeni Pastera ("GINZ"), 1919-1924 (Moscow: GINZ, 1924). Hereafter references to this collection will be given as GINZ (1924).
68. For the justifications put forward in support of the Institute of Tropical Diseases see GARF, f. A-482, op. 1, d. 82, ll. 116-123 rev.
69. GARF, f. A-482, op. 1, d. 82, ll. 223, 227.
70. GARF, f. A-482, op. 1, d. 82, ll. 252 rev-253 rev.
71. GARF, f. A-482, op. 1, d. 82, l. 249.
72. The Collegium also decided to send, an inquiry to the Supreme Council of People's Economy regarding the agency's plans to organize a laboratory or a factory for the production of organotherapeutic preparations, but as far as I have been able to ascertain they never got a response;
73. see GARF, f. A-482, op. 1, d. 116, ll. 24 rev-25, 130.
74. In 1922 Pletnev would become a professor of therapy at the Kremlin clinic; see Kremlevskaia meditsina (ot istokov do nashikh dnei) (Moscow: Izvestiia, 1997), p. 89.
75. For these further steps see GARF, f. A-482, op. 25, d. 18, ll. 16-16 rev;
76. for the suggestion that the farm become an "organotherapeutic institute" see GARF, f. A-482, op. 1, d. 82, l. 303.
77. GARF, A-482, op. 1, d. 82, ll. 316-325.
78. GARF, f. A-482, op. 25, d. 91, ll. 6-7 (the quotations in the next few paragraphs are all from this document).
79. GARF, f. A-482, op. 1, d. 82, l. 303.
80. GARF, f. A-482, op. 25, d. 41, l. 47. For a short biography of Bakh see L. A. Bakh and I. A. Oparin, Aleksei Nikolaevich Bakh (Moscow: Izd. AN SSSR, 1957).
81. See GARF, f. A-482, op. 25, d. 41, l. 46;
82. and GARF, f. A-482, op. 1, d. 82, ll. 365, 370.
83. For a description of Bakli's technique and its use at the farm see A. N. Bakh and S. Zubkova, "Kolichestvennoe opredelenie katalazy, proteazy, perooksidazy i esterazy v kaple krovi," in GINZ (1924), pp. 223-225;
84. and Bakh and B. P. Kheraskova, "Pokazatel' katalazy u tireodektomirovannykh koz," ibid., p. 227.
85. For the Collegium's reaffirmation of the farm supervisors' control see GARF, f. A-482, op. 1, d. 121, l. 72;
86. on the permanent pharmacological commission see GARF, f. A-482, op. 25, d. 41, ll. 55-56.
87. "Cheka" was the popular abbreviation for the name of "the extraordinary commission to combat counter-revolution, sabotage, and speculation," which was the main instrument of the Red Terror. There is some evidence that Shervinskii personally treated Menzhinskii; see the Shervinskii collection, HMMMA.
88. See GARF, f. A-482, op. 25, d. 103, l. 9 rev.
89. GARF, f. A-482, op. 25, d. 18, ll. 36-36 rev.
90. GARF, f. A-482, op. 25, d. 104, l. 59.
91. On the appeal for a name change see GARF, f. A-482, op. 25, d. 18, l. 38;
92. regarding the change that appeared in official correspondence see GARF, f. A-482, op. 25, d. 104, ll. 55-60.
93. On Bakh's new institute see GINZ (1924), pp. 25-27. For Shervinskii and Tobolkin's request see GARF, f. A-482, op. 25, d. 18, ll. 39-42;
94. for the discussion and action taken see GARF, f. A-482, op. 25, d. 104, l. 151;
95. for the final decision see GARF, f. A-482, op. 25, d. 177, l. 5.
96. See GINZ (1924), pp. 21-23.
97. GARF, f. A-482, op. 25, d. 177, l. 158 rev (quotation);
98. and GARF, f. A-482, op. 25, d. 236, l. 7 rev.
99. See B. I. Il'in and L. V. Redina, "Khimicheskii sostav moloka tireodektomirovannykh koz," in GINZ (1924), pp. 152-154;
100. and. O. P. Molchanova, "K voprosu o vliianii gipofiza na rost zhivotnykh," ibid., pp. 192-193.
101. See Nabliudatel', "Laboratoriia v pivnoi," Vechemiaia Moskva, 30 Sept. 1925, p. 2.
102. GARF, f. A-482, op. 25, d. 279, ll. 32-33.
103. GARF, f. A-482, op. 25, d. 279, ll. 72-74.
104. On the anthropological museum, see N. G. Zalkind, Moskovskaia shkola antropologii (Moscow: MGU, 1975).
105. On the Bolsheviks' campaign for the popularization of science see James T. Andrews, Science for the Masses: The Bolshevik State, Public Science, and the Popular Imagination in Soviet Russia, 1917-1934 (College Station: Texas A&M Univ. Press, 2003).
106. On the history of Soviet social hygiene see Susan G. Solomon, "Soviet Social Hygiene, 1917-1936," unpublished MS, 1997. I am grateful to Solomon for the opportunity to read this work.
107. GARF, f. A-482, op. 25, d. 310, ll. 5-8 (the quotations in the next few paragraphs are all from this document).
108. The report on the museum was published in the first issue of Vestnik Endokrinologii, 1925, 7(1):v-vii.
109. See "Moskovskii organoterapevticheskii institut," Izvestiia, 11 Apr. 1924, p. 7.
110. GARF, f. A-2307, op. 17, d. 115, l. 284;
111. and GARF, f. A-482, op. 28, d. 3, l. 20 (quotation).
112. For the NKVD approval of the charter see GARF, f. A-482, op. 28, d. 3, l. 19. The protocol for the first meeting of the Russian Endocrinological Society can be found in Vestnik Endokrinol, 1925, 7(2):169-170. 'Die quotations are from Shervinskii's opening address: Shervinskii, "Rech' pri otkrytii Rossiiskogo endokrinoIogicheskogo obshchestva" (cit. n. 1).
113. Sakharov's contribution is described in Vestnik Endokrinol., 1925, 7(2):169-170. The quotation is from Shervinskii, "Rech' pri otkrytii Rossiiskogo endokrinologicheskogo obshchestva," p. 67.
114. See "V endokrinologicheskom obshchestve," Izvestiia, 21 Dec. 1924, p. 5;
115. "V endokrinologicheskom obshchestve," ibid., 25 Mar. 1925, p. 6;
116. "V endokrinologicheskom obshchestve," ibid., 21 Feb. 1926, p. 5;
117. and "V endokrinologicheskom obshchestve," ibid., 28 May 1926, p. 4.
118. The protocols of the first eight meetings were published in Vestnik Endokrinol, 1925, 7(2):169-184, 7(3):17-22. Subsequent protocols were issued as a separate periodical;
119. see Protokoly Zasedanii Rossiiskogo Endokrinologicheskogo Obshchestva, Vols. 1-6 (Moscow, 1926-1929).
120. GARF, f. A-482, op. 25, d. 310, ll. 100, 109, 116-117.
121. For the presentation of the thirty-nine preparations see GARF, f. A-482, op. 25, d. 320, ll. 1-4;
122. for the Council's discussion of these preparations see GARF, f. A-482, op. 25, d. 311, ll. 76-78.
123. On Parke-Davis see Milton Hoefie, "The Early History of Parke-Davis and Company," Bulletin for the History of Chemistry, 2000, 25:28-34. The Moscow firm Karl Ferrein and the Petrograd firm Aleksandr Pel' produced a variety of adrenal extracts. Pel' even advertised a preparation called "adrenal-chloride." There are some indications that Ferrein began research on the manufacture of adrenaline during World War I, but it remains unclear whether either firm actually produced pure adrenaline in any quantity.
124. On the new institute and its heads see the unsigned and untitled, editorial in the first issue of the Herald of Endocrinology: Vestnik Endokrinol, 1925, 7(1):iii-iv;
125. for the list of preparations see ibid., back cover. The move to the new building is described in "Institut eksperimental'noi endokrinologii," Izvestiia, 8 Oct. 1925, p. 3.
126. For the bibliography see Rossiiskii, Sistematicheskii ukazatel' (cit. n. 6).
127. For special sessions on endocrinological topics see, e.g., Trudy vtorogo vsesoiuznogo s"ezda fiziologov (Leningrad: Glavnauka, 1926);
128. and Trudy VIII vsesoiuznogo s"ezda terapevtov (Leningrad: GIZ, 1926).
129. Tobolkin's success in marshaling cooperation is described in "Pitomnik obez'ian," Pravda, 1 Oct. 1926, p. 3.
130. On the primate station's breeding program see "Obez'iany v Sukhumi," Vechemiaia Moskva, 11 June 1927, p. 3;
131. and P. V. Bochkarev, Obez'iany v Sukhumi: Ocherk istorii i sovremennogo sostoianiia Sukhumskogo Gosudarstvennogo nauhno- issledovatel'skogopitomnika obez'ian (Sukhumi: Abgiz, 1932).
132. See Protokoly Zasedanii Rossiiskogo Endokrinologicheskogo Obshchestva (cit. n. 71).
133. For the protocols of the Leningrad branch's sessions see Vestnik Endokrinol, 1927, 2(2):185-190.
134. On the insulin committee see "Insulin budet," Vechemiaia Moskva. 26 June 1927, p. 2.
135. The successful manufacture of the first samples is announced in "Dostizheniia sovetskoi meditsiny," Izvestiia, 20 Jan. 1928, p. 4;
136. and "Vypushchen v prodazhu insulin," Pravda, 31 July 1928, p. 8.
137. The Evening Moscow report is "Pobeda sovetskikh laboratori i : Sovetskii insulin," Vechemiaia Moskva, 11 Jan. 1928, p. 2.
138. Shervinskii's nomination for the "Worker of Merit" title appears in "Khodataistva o nagrazhdenii zvaniem zasluzhennykh deialelei nauki." Izvestiia, 21 Oct. 1928, p. 2.
139. The actual award is announced in "Sovnarkom prisvoil zvanie zasluzhennogo dciatclia nauki direktora gosudarstvcnnoao instituta ekspcrimentaFnoi endoki'inoloaii V. D. Shervinskomu," Prax'da, 22 Dec. 1928, p. 4:
140. and "V Sovnarkome RSFSR," Izvestiia. 22 Dec. 1928,"p. 2.
141. The textbook is V. D. Shervinskii and G. P. Sakharov, eds., Osnovy Endokrinologii (Leningrad: Prakticheskaia meditsina, 1929).
142. The treatment units are discussed in GARF, f. A-482, op. 28, d. 211, l. 2 rev. The manual is Klinicheskaia endokrinologiia: Osnovy meditsinskoi endokrinologii dlia vrachei i studentov (Leningrad: Kubuch, 1930).
143. For a contemporary overview of the development of endocrinology in the Ukraine see M. S. Shindler and E. Ia. Reznitskaia, Ukrainskaia endokrinologiia i organoterapiia za 15 let revoliutsii (Kharkov: NKZ USSR, 1936).
144. For a short historical account of organotherapy and endocrinology in the Ukraine see N. P. Arzhanov and E. G. Arzhanova, "Ot organoterapii do endocrinologii," Provizor, 1999, no. 7, online at http://www.provisor. com.ua/arch.ive/1999/N7/arganov.htm (accessed 17 Feb. 2006).
145. GARF, f. A-482, op. 1, d. 82, l. 253.
146. See, e.g., H. Lisser, "The Endocrine Society: The First Forty Years (1917-57)," Endocrinology, 1967, 80:5-28;
147. T. F. Glick, "On the Diffusion of a New Specialty: Maranon and the 'Crisis' of Endocrinology in Spain," J. Hist. Biol., 1976, 9:287-300;
148. and Theodore B. Schwartz, "Henry Harrower and the Turbulent Beginnings of Endocrinology," Annals of Internal Medicine, 1999, 131:702-706.
149. On the role of international contacts in the development of Russian genetics see Nikolai Krementsov, International Science between the World Wars: The Case of Genetics (London: Routledge, 2005).
150. On German contacts in social hygiene see Solomon, "Soviet Social Hygiene" (cit. n. 64).
151. On the institute and its establishment see Mark B. Adams, "Science, Ideology, and Structure: The Kol'tsov Institute, 1900-1970," in The Social Context of Soviet Science, ed. Linda L. Lubrano and Susan G. Solomon. (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1980), pp. 173-204.
152. See P. V. Bochkarev, Organoterapiia prakticheskogo vracha (Moscow: IEE, 1926);
153. Bochkarev, Endokrinologiia zhenskoi polovoi sistemy (Moscow: IEE, 1927);
154. Bochkarev, Endokrinologiia muzhskoi polovoi sistemy (Moscow: IEE, 1928);
155. Bochkarev, Uglevodnyi obmen, insulin i diabet (Moscow/Leningrad: Medgiz, 1929);
156. and Bochkarev, Endokrimtoe syr'e, ego sbor, konservirovanie, khranenie, perevozki (Moscow/Leningrad: Snabkoopgiz, 1931).
157. See, e.g., Nelly Oudshoorn, "United We Stand: The Pharmaceutical Industry, Laboratory, and Clinic in the Development of Sex Hormones into Scientific Drugs, 1920-1940," Science, Technology, and Human Values, 1993, 78:5-24;
158. Jonathan Liebenau, Medical Science and Medical Industry: The Formation of the American Pharmaceutical Industry (London: Macmillan, 1987);
159. J. P. Swann, Academic Scientists and the Pharmaceutical Industry: Cooperative Research in Twentieth-Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1988);
160. Liebenau, G. J. Higby, and E. C. Stroud, eds., Pill Peddlers: Essays on the History of the Pharmaceutical Industry (Madison, Wis.: American Institute of the History of Pharmacy, 1990);
161. Christian Bonah and Anne Rasmussen, eds., Histoire et médicament: Aux XIXe et XXe siècles (Paris: Glyphe, 2005);
162. and a special issue of Studies in the History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, 2005, 36(4), esp. Jean-Paul Gaudilliere, "Introduction," pp. 603-611.
163. In the mid-1930s the manufacturing division was separated from the Institute of Experimental Endocrinology and established as an independent factory run by Narkomzdrav. For the only, though rather skewed, account of the Soviet pharmaceutical industry in the 1920s and early 1930s see Mary Schaeffer Conroy, The Soviet Pharmaceutical Business during Its First Two Decades, 1917-1937 (New York: Lang, 2006).
164. See Diana Long Hall, "The Critic and the Advocate: Contrasting British Views on. the State of Endocrinology in the Early 1920s," J. Hist. Biol., 1976, 9:269-285;
165. Borell, "Organotherapy, British Physiology, and Discovery of the Internal Secretions" (cit. n. 7);
166. Merriley Borell, "Setting the Standards for a New Science: Edward Schäfer and Endocrinology," Medical History, 1978, 22:282-290;
167. L. G. Wilson, "Internal Secretions in Disease: The Historical Relations of Clinical Medicine and Scientific Physiology," Journal, of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, 1984, 19:263-302;
168. and E. M. Tansey, "What's in a Name: Henry Dale and Adrenaline, 1906," Med. Hist., 1995, 19:459-475.
169. See, e.g., Diana Long Hall, "Biology, Sex Hormones, and Sexism, in the 1920s," Philosophical Forum, 1973/1974, 5(1-2):81-96;
170. Nelly Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body: An Archaeology of Sex Hormones (London: Routledge, 1994);
171. Adele E. Clarke, Disciplining Reproduction: Modernity, American Life Sciences, and the Problems of Sex (Berkeley: Univ. California Press, 1998);
172. and Chandak Sengoopta, The Most Secret Quintessence of Life: Sex, Glands, and Hormones, 1850-1950 (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 2006).
173. On the role of personal networks in discipline building see Krementsov, International Science between the World Wars (cit. n. 84).
174. See Scott F. Gilbert, ed., A. Conceptual History of Modern Embryology (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1994).
175. See the memoirs of the two leading experimental embryologists, the Zavadovskii brothers: B. M. Zavadovskii, Zhivaia priroda v rukakh cheloveka: Zapiski okhotnika za gormonami (Moscow: Sel'khozgiz, 1935);
176. and M. M, Zavadovskii, Stranitsy vospominanii (Moscow: MGU, 1989).
177. Regarding Mikhail Zavadovskii's talk see Protokoly Zasedanii Rossiiskogo Endokrinologicheskogo Obshchestva (cit. n. 71).
178. See Daniel Todes, Pavlov's Physiology Factory (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2002).
179. See, e.g., I. R. Tarkhanov, "O fiziologicheskom deistvii Cerebrini prof. Pelia," Zhurnal Meditsinskoi Khimii i Organoterapii, 1902, 25-26:5-10;
180. A. A. Kuliabko, "Ob ureine d-ra Moor'a i ego fiziologicheskom deistvii," ibid., pp. 109-118;
181. and. Poehl et al., Rational Organotherapy with Reference to Urosemiology (cit. n. 9).
182. For a biography of Tarkhanov see M. G. Saakashvili, Ivan Ramazovich Tarkhanishvili (Tbilisi: Tsodna, 1963);
183. on Kuliabko's life and work see his obituary: "A. A. Kuliabko," Med.-Biol. Zh., 1930, 6:449-452.
184. For a biography of Shaternikov see V. A. Shaternikov and L. F. Gorelova, Mikhail Nikolaevich Shaternikov (Moscow: Nauka, 1982).
185. H. M. Evans, "Present Position of Our Knowledge of the Anterior Pituitary Function," Journal of the American Medical Association, 1933, 707:425-432
186. cited in Scngoopta, Most Secret Quintessence of Life (cit. n. 90), p. 33. On lhe relationship between organotherapy and endocrinology see, e.g., Hall. "The Cri tic and the Advocate" (cit. n. 89);
187. Schwartz, "Henry Harrower and the Turbulent Beginnings of Endocrinology" (cit. n. 83);
188. Borell, "Organotherapy, British Physiology, and Discovery of the Internal Secretions" (cit. n. 7);
189. and Borell, "Organotherapy and the Emergence of Reproductive Endocrinology" (cit. n. 7).