What caused the Viking Age?

Antiquity

Volumn 82, Issue 317, 2008, Pages 671-685

  Barrett, James H ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Abbasid; Britain; Early medieval; Ireland; North Sea; Scandinavia; Silver; Treasure; Viking Age

Indexed keywords

EID: 53549088342     PISSN: 0003598X     EISSN: 0003598X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0003598X00097301     Document Type: Article

References (135)

1. ANDERSEN, S.T., B. AABY, B. ODGAARD & E. STENESTAD. 1988. Bæredygtigt landbrug. Danmarks Geologiske Undersogelse Årsberetning 1988: 26-9.
2. ARNEBORG, J. 2003. Norse Greenland: reflections on settlement and depopulation, in J.H. Barrett (ed.) Contact, continuity and collapse: the Norse colonization of the North Atlantic (Studies in the Early Middle Ages 5): 163-82. Turnhout: Brepols.
3. ARRHENIUS, B. 1995. Women and gold: on the role of women in society at the time of the Great Migrations and their relationship to the production and distribution of ornaments, in H.G. Resi (ed.) Produksjon og samfunn: 85-96. Oslo: Universitetets Oldsaksamling.
4. ASHBY, S.P. 2006. Time, trade and identity: bone and antler combs in early medieval northern Britain. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of York.
5. BALLIN SMITH, B. 1995. Reindeer antler combs at Howe: contact between late Iron Age Orkney and Norway. Universitetets Oldsaksamling Årbok 1993/1994: 207-11.
6. BALLIN SMITH, B. 2007. Norwick: Shetland's first Viking settlement?, in B.B. Smith, S. Taylor & G. Williams (ed.) West over sea: studies in Scandinavian sea-borne expansion and settlement before 1300: 287-98. Leiden: Brill.
7. BARRETT, J.H. 2003. Culture contact in Viking Age Scotland, in J.H. Barrett (ed.) Contact, continuity and collapse: the Norse colonization of the North Atlantic (Studies in the Early Middle Age 5): 73-111. Turnhout: Brepols.
8. BARRETT, J.H. 2006. Migration and identity in Viking Age Scotland: interdisciplinary approaches. Unpublished paper presented at Migration in the First Millennium AD workshop, Oxford, 16-17 June 2006.
9. BARRETT, J.H. & M.P. RICHARDS. 2004. Identity, gender, religion and economy: new isotope and radiocarbon evidence for marine resource intensification in early historic Orkney, Scotland. European Journal of Archaeology 7: 249-71.
10. BENEDIKTSSON, J. (ed.) 1968. Íslendingabók, Landnámabók. Reykjavik: Hio Íslenzka Fornritafélag.
11. BESTEMAN, J. 2004. Two Viking hoards from the former island of Wieringen (The Netherlands): Viking relations with Frisia in an archaeological perspective, in J. Hines, A. Lane & M. Redknap (ed.) Land, sea and home: proceedings of a conference on Viking-period settlement (Society for Medieval Archaeology Monograph 20): 93-108. Leeds: Maney.
12. BIDDLE, M. & B. KJØLBYE-BIDDLE. 2001. Repton and the 'great heathen army', 873-4, in J. Graham-Campbell, R. Hall, J. Jesch & D.N. Parsons (ed.) Vikings and the Danelaw: 45-96. Oxford: Oxbow.
13. BOLIN, S. 1953. Mohammed, Charlemagne and Ruric. Scandinavian History Review 1: 5-39.
14. BRADLEY, R.S., M.K. HUGHES & H.F. DIAZ. 2003. Climate in medieval time. Science 302: 404-5.
15. BRETTELL, C.B. 2000. Theorizing migration in anthropology: the social construction of networks, identities, communities and globalscapes, in C.B. Brettell & J.F. Hollifield (ed.) Migration theory: talking across disciplines: 97-136. London: Routledge.
16. BRINK, S. & N. PRICE (ed.). In press. The Viking world. London: Routledge.
17. BROOKS, N. 1971. The development of military obligations in eighth- and ninth-century England, in P. Clemoes & K. Hughes (ed.) England before the Conquest: 69-84. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
18. BROOKS, N. 1979. England in the ninth century: the crucible of defeat. Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 29: 1-20.
19. BURSTRÖM, M. 1993. Silver as a bridewealth: an interpretation of Viking Age silver hoards on Gotland, Sweden. Current Swedish Archaeology 1: 33-7.
20. BUTEUX, S. (ed.) 1997. Settlements at Skaill, Deerness, Orkney: excavations by Peter Gelling of the prehistoric, Pictish, Viking and later periods, 1963-1981 (British Archaeological Reports British Series 260). Oxford: Archaeopress.
21. BYOCK, J. 2001. Viking Age Iceland. London: Penguin.
22. CARVER, M.O.H. 1990. Pre-Viking traffic in the North Sea, in S. Macgrail (ed.) Maritime Celts, Frisians and Saxons: 117-25. London: Council for British Archaeology.
23. CARVER, M.O.H. 1995. On - and off - the Edda, in O. Olsen, J. Skamby Madsen & F. Riek (ed.) Ship-shape: essays for Ole Crumlin-Pedersen: 305-12. Roskilde: Viking Ship Museum.
24. CLOVER, C.J. 1988. The politics of scarcity: notes on the sex ratio in early Scandinavia. Scandinavian Studies 60: 147-88.
25. COUPLAND, S. 1998. From poachers to gamekeepers: Scandinavian warlords and Carolingian kings. Early Medieval Europe 7(l): 85-114.
26. CRUMLIN-PEDERSEN, O. (ed.) 1995. The ship as symbol in prehistoric and medieval Scandinavia. Copenhagen: National Museum of Denmark.
27. CRUMLIN-PEDERSEN, O. 2007. Aspects of the origin of Atlantic and Baltic Seafaring. Paper presented at the Global Origins and Development of Seafaring Conference, University of Cambridge, 19-21 September 2007.
28. DAHL-JENSEN, D., K. MOSEGAARD, N. GUNDESTRUP, G.D. CLOW, S.J. JOHNSEN, A.W. HANSEN & N. BALLING. 1998. Past temperatures directly from the Greenland ice sheet. Science 282: 268-71.
29. DANSGAARD, W., S.J. JOHNSEN, N. REEH, N. GUNDESTRUP, H.B. CLAUSEN & C.U. HAMMER. 1975. Climatic changes, Norsemen and modern man. Nature 155: 24-8.
30. DOWNHAM, C. 2007. Viking kings of Britain and Ireland: the dynasty of Ívarr to AD 1014. Edinburgh: Dunedin Academic Press.
31. DUCZKO, W. 2004. Viking Rus: studies on the presence of Scandinavians in Eastern Europe. Leiden: Brill.
32. DUGMORE, A.J., C. KELLER & T.H. MCGOVERN. 2007. Norse Greenland settlement: reflections on climate change, trade, and the contrasting fates of human settlements in the North Atlantic islands. Arctic Anthropology 44: 12-36.
33. DUMVILLE, D.N. 2002. The North Atlantic monastic thalassocracy: sailing to the desert in early medieval insular spirituality, in B.E. Crawford (ed.) The Papar in the North Atlantic: environment and history (St John's House Papers No. 10): 121-30. St Andrews: Committee for Dark Age Studies, University of St Andrews.
34. DYER, C. 2002. Making a living in the Middle Ages. London: Yale University Press.
35. EARLE, T. 1997. How chiefs come to power: the political economy in prehistory. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
36. EDWARDS, K.J. 2005. On the windy edge of nothing: a historical ecology of the Faroe Islands. Human Ecology 33: 585-96.
37. EKREM, I. & L. BOJE MORTENSEN (ed.). 2003. Historia Norwegie. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, University of Copenhagen.
38. ENGLERT, A. 2007. Ohthere's voyages seen from a nautical angle, in J. Bately & A. Englert (ed.) Ohthere's Voyages: a late 9th-century account of voyages along the coasts of Norway and Denmark and its cultural context: 117-29. Roskilde: Viking Ships Museum.
39. ETCHINGHAM, C. 1996. Viking raids on Irish Church settlements in the ninth century. Maynooth: St Patrick's College Maynooth.
40. ETCHINGHAM, C. 2007. The location of historical Laithlinn/ Lochla(i)nn: Scotland or Scandinavia?, in M. Ó Flaithearta (ed.) Proceedings of the seventh symposium of Societas Celtologica Nordica (Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis 6): 11-31. Uppsala: Uppsala University.
41. FORENBAHER, S. & P.T. MIRACLE. 2005. The spread of farming in the Eastern Adriatic. Antiquity 79: 514-28.
42. FOSSIER, R. 1999. Rural economy and country life, in T. Reuter (ed.) The new Cambridge Medieval History: volume III c. 900 - c. 1024: 27-63. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
43. GRAHAM-CAMPBELL, J.A. 1975. Bossed penannular brooches: a review of recent research. Medieval Archaeology 19: 33-47.
44. GRAHAM-CAMPBELL, J.A. 1995. The Viking-Age gold and silver of Scotland. Edinburgh: National Museums of Scotland.
45. GRAHAM-CAMPBELL, J.A. 1998. The Early Viking Age in the Irish Sea area, in H. Clarke, M. Ní Mhaonaigh & R. Ó Floinn (ed.) Ireland and Scandinavia in the Early Viking Age: 104-30. Dublin: Four Courts.
46. GRAHAM-CAMPBELL, J.A. 2001. National and regional identities: the 'glittering prizes', in M. Redknap, N. Edwards, S. Youngs, A. Lane & J. Knight (ed.) Pattern and purpose in Insular art: 27-38. Oxford: Oxbow.
47. GRAHAM-CAMPBELL, J.A. 2003. The Vikings in Orkney, in D.J. Waugh (ed.) The faces of Orkney: stones, skalds and saints: 128-37. Edinburgh: Scottish Society for Northern Studies.
48. GUDMUNDSSON, F. (ed.) 1965. Orkneyinga Saga. Reykjavík: Hio Islenzka Fornritafélag.
49. HADLEY, D.M. 2006. The Vikings in England: settlement, society and culture. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
50. HALSALL, G. 2003. Warfare and society in the Barbarian West 450-900. London: Routledge.
51. HANNON, G.E., R.H.W. BRADSHAW, E.G. BRADSHAW, I. SNOWBALL & S. WASTEGARD. 2005. Climate change and human settlement as drivers of late-Holocene vegetational change in the Faroe Islands. The Holocene 15: 639-47.
52. HANSEN, I.L. & C. WICKHAM (ed.). 2000. The long eighth century: production, distribution and demand. Leiden: Brill.
53. HAYWOOD, J. 1999. Dark Age naval power: a reassessment of Frankish and Anglo-Saxon seafaring activity. Hockwold-cum-Wilton: Anglo-Saxon Books.
54. HEDEAGER, L. 1992. Iron-Age societies: from tribe to state in Northern Europe 500 BC to AD 700. Oxford: Blackwell.
55. HEINSOHN, G. 2003. Söhne und Weltmacht: Terror im Aufstieg und Fall der Nationen. Zürich: Orell Füssli.
56. HENNESSY, W.M. (ed.) 1998. Annals of Ulster volume I. Dublin: Éamonn de Búrca.
57. HERNÆS, P. 1997. Storpolitikk og vikingtog på slutten av 700-tallet, in I. Fuglestvedt & B. Myhre (ed.) Konflikt i forhistorien (AmS Varia 30): 57-67. Stavanger: Arkeologisk Museum i Stavanger.
58. HILL, D. 1981. An atlas of Anglo-Saxon England. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
59. HILL, D. & R. COWIE. 2001. Wics: the early medieval trading centres of Northern Europe. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.
60. HILLS, C. 2003. The origins of the English. London: Duckworth.
61. HODGES, R. 2006. Goodbye to the Vikings? in R. Hodges (ed.) Goodbye to the Vikings? Re-reading early medieval archaeology: 157-62. London: Duckworth
62. HODGES, R. & D. WHITEHOUSE. 1983. Mohammed Charlemagne & the origins of Europe: archaeology and the Pirenne thesis. London: Duckworth.
63. HOLM, P. 1986. The slave trade of Dublin, ninth to twelfth centuries. Peritia 5: 317-45.
64. HUGHES, M.K. & H.F. DIAZ. 1994. Was there a 'Medieval Warm Period', and if so, where and when. Climatic Change 26: 109-42.
65. HUNTER, J. 2007. The interface and Scandinavian settlement, in J. Hunter, J.M. Bond & A.N. Smith (ed.) Investigations in Sanday, Orkney. Volume I: excavations at Pool, Sanday. Multi-period settlement from Neolithic to Late Norse times: 121-45. Kirkwall: The Orcadian/ Historic Scotland.
66. JOHNSON, R. 2001. The development of Irish brooch forms and pins in the Viking Age, c. 850-1170. Peritia 15: 321-62.
67. JÓNSSON, F. (ed.) 1911. Snorri Sturluson: Heimskringla. København: G.E.C. Gads.
68. KARLSSON, S. & A.-M. ROBERTSSON. 1997. Human impact in the Lake Mälaren region, south-central Sweden during the Viking Age (AD 750-1050): a survey of biostratigraphical evidence, in U. Miller & H. Clarke (ed.) Environment and Vikings: scientific methods and techniques: 47-72. Stockholm: Birka Project.
69. KEEGAN, W.F. 2004. Islands of Chaos, in A. Delpuech & C.L. Hofman (ed.) Late ceramic age societies in the eastern Caribbean (British Archaeological Reports International Series 1273): 33-44. Oxford: Archaeopress.
70. KEYNES, S. 1997. The Vikings in England, c. 790-1016, in R Sawyer (ed.) The Oxford illustrated history of the Vikings: 48-82. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
71. KRISTOFFERSEN, S. 2004. Bridal jewels - in life and death, in T Oestigaard, N. Anfinset & T Saetersdal (ed.) Combining the past and the present: archaeological perspectives on society (British Archaeological Reports International Series 1210): 31-7. Oxford: Archaeopress.
72. KUHN, H. 1977. Uns ist Fahrwind gegeben wider den Tod: aus einer großen Zeit des Nordens. Zeitschrift für Deutsches Altertum und Deutsche Literatur 106: 147-63.
73. LUND, N. 1989. Allies of God or man? The Viking expansion in a European perspective. Viator 20: 45-59.
74. MäAGI, M. 1999. Viking Age inhumations in Estonia - new interpretations, in P. Purhonen (ed.) Fenno- Ugria et Slavi 1997: cultural contacts in the area ofthe Gulf of Finland in the 9th- 13th centuries: 29-43. Helsinki: Museovirasto.
75. MCCORMICK, M. 2001. Origins of the European economy: communication and commerce AD 300-900. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
76. MICHELLI, P. 1993. Migrating ideas or migrating craftsmen? The case of the bossed penannufar brooches, in R.M. Spearman & J. Higgitt (ed.) The Age of migrating ideas: early medieval art in northern Britain and Ireland: 182-7. Edinburgh: National Museums of Scotland & Stroud: Sutton.
77. MINORSKY, V. 1958. Mas'ūdi on the Caucasus, in V. Minorsky (ed.) A history of Sharvān and Darband in the 10th-11th centuries. Cambridge: W. Heffer & Sons.
78. MONTGOMERY, J. & J.A. EVANS. 2006. Immigrants on the Isle of Lewis: combining traditional fianerary and modern isotope evidence to investigate social differentiation, migration and dietary change in the Outer Hebrides of Scotland, in R. Gowland & C. Knusel (ed.) The social archaeology of funerary remains: 122-42. Oxford: Oxbow.
79. MONTGOMERY, J., J.A. EVANS & T. NEIGHBOUR. 2003. Sr isotope evidence for population movement within the Hebridean Norse community of NW Scotland. Journal of the Geological Society 160: 649-53.
80. MORRIS, C.D. 1998. Raiders, traders and settlers: the Early Viking Age in Scotland, in H. Clarke, M. Ní Mhaonaigh & R. Ó Floinn (ed.) Ireland and Scandinavia in the Early Viking Age: 73-103. Dublin: Four Courts Press.
81. MÜLLER-WILLE, M. 1994. Der politische Mißbrauch der Skandinavischen Vor- und Frühgeschichte während der Jahre 1933-1945. Offa 51: 25-35.
82. MYHRE, B. 1987. Chieftains' graves and chiefdom territories. Studien zur Sachsenforschung 7: 169-87.
83. MYHRE, B. 1993. The beginning of the Viking Age - some current archaeological problems, in A. Faulkes & R. Perkins (ed.) Viking revaluations: 182-204. London: Viking Society for Northern Research, University College London.
84. MYHRE, B. 1998. The archaeology of the early Viking Age in Norway, in H. Clarke, M. Ní Mhaonaigh & R. Ó Floinn (ed.) Ireland and Scandinavia in the Early Viking Age: 3-36. Dublin: Four Courts.
85. MYHRE, B. 2003. The Iron Age, in K. Helle (ed.) The Cambridge History of Scandinavia: 60-93. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
86. NÄSMAN, U. 1991. Sea trade during the Scandinavian Iron Age: its character, commodities and routes, in O. Crumlin-Pedersen (ed.) Aspects of maritime Scandinavia AD 200-1200: 23-40. Roskilde: Viking Ship Museum.
87. NÄSMAN, U. 2000a. Raids, migrations and kingdoms - the Danish case. Acta Archaeologica 71: 1-7.
88. NÄSMAN, U. 2000b. Exchange and politics: the eighth-early ninth century in Denmark, in I.L. Hansen & C. Wickham (ed.) The long eighth century: production, distribution and demand: 35 -68. Leiden: Brill.
89. NELSON, J.L. (ed.) 1991. The Annals of St-Bertin. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
90. NELSON, J.L. 1997. The Frankish empire, in P. Sawyer (ed.) The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings: 19-47. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
91. NONDIER, G. 2002. Le mythe viking en Normandie et ses paradoxes, in E. Ridel & P. Bouet (ed.) L'héritage maritime des Vikings en Europe de l'Ouest: 503-12. Caen: Presses Universitaires de Caen.
92. Ó CORRÁIN, D. 1998a. The Vikings in Scotland and Ireland in the ninth century. Peritia 12: 296-339.
93. Ó CORRÁIN, D. 1998b. Viking Ireland - afterthoughts, in H. Clarke, M. Ní Mhaonaigh & R. Ó Floinn (ed.) Ireland and Scandinavia in the Early Viking Age: 421-52. Dublin: Four Courts.
94. Ó CRÓINÍN, D. 1995. Early medieval Ireland, 400-1200. London: Longman.
95. OPPENHEIMER, S. 2007. The origins of the British: a genetic detective story. London: Robinson.
96. OWEN, O. & M. DALLAND. 1999. Scar: a Viking boat burial on Sanday, Orkney. East Linton: Tuckwell Press.
97. PATERSON, C. 2001. Insular belt-fittings from the pagan Norse graves of Scotland: a reappraisal in the light of scientific and stylistic analysis, in M. Redknap, N. Edwards, S. Youngs, A. Lane & J. Knight (ed.) Pattern and purpose in Insular art: 125-32. Oxford: Oxbow.
98. PIRENNE, H. 1939. Mohammed and Charlemagne. London: Allen & Unwin.
99. PRICE, N. 2000. Novgorod, Kiev and their satellites: the city-state model and the Viking Age polities of European Russia, in M.H. Hansen (ed.) A comparative study of thirty city-state cultures: 263-75. Copenhagen: Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters.
100. PRICE, N. 2002. The Viking way: religion and war in late Iron Age Scandinavia (AUN 31).Uppsala: Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, University of Uppsala.
101. RANDSBORG, K. 1980. The Viking Age in Denmark: the formation of a state. London: Duckworth.
102. RANDSBORG, K. 1995. Hjortspring: warfare and sacrifice in early Europe. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press.
103. RANDSBORG, K. 2000. Colonization: Greek and Viking. Acta Archaeologica 71: 171-82.
104. RAVEN, S. 2005. The Scandinavian bowls, in R.L.S. Bruce-Mitford (ed.) A corpus of Late Celtic hanging-bowls: 41-61. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
105. REUTER, T. 1985. Plunder and tribute in the Carolingian Empire. Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 35: 75-94.
106. RICHARDS, J.D. 2000. Viking Age England. Stroud: Tempus.
107. RIDEL, E. 2007. From Scotland to Normandy: the Celtic sea route of the Vikings, in B.B. Smith, S. Taylor & G. Williams (ed.) West over sea: studies in Scandinavian sea-borne expansion and settlement before 1300: 81-94. Leiden: Brill.
108. ROESDAHL, E. 1991. The Vikings. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
109. SANTIAGO-IRIZARRY, V. 2008. Transnationalism and migration: locating sociocultural practices among Mexican immigrants in the United States. Reviews in Anthropology 37: 16-40.
110. SAWYER, B. 2000. The Viking-Age rune stones. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
111. SAWYER, P. 1982a. The causes of the Viking Age, in R.T. Farrell (ed.) The Vikings: 1-7. London: Phillimore.
112. SAWYER, P. 1982b. Kings and Vikings: Scandinavia and Europe AD 700-1100. London: Methuen.
113. SAWYER, P. 2003a. The Viking expansion, in K. Helle (ed.) The Cambridge History of Scandinavia: 105-20. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
114. SAWYER, P. 2003b. Scotland, Ireland and Iceland: Norwegian settlers in the ninth century, in S. Lewis-Simpson (ed.) Vinland revisited: the Norse world at the turn of the first millennium: 29-36. St John's: Historic Sites Association of Newfoundland and Labrador.
115. SCHOLZ, B.W. (ed.) 1970. Carolingian chronicles. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
116. SHEEHAN, J. 1998. Early Viking Age silver hoards from Ireland and their Scandinavian elements, in H. Clarke, M. Ní Mhaonaigh & R. Ó Floinn (ed.) Ireland and Scandinavia in the Early Viking Age: 166-202. Dublin: Four Courts.
117. SIMEK, R. 2004. The emergence of the Viking Age: reasons and triggers, in R. Simek & U. Engel (ed.) Vikings on the Rhine: recent research on early medieval relations between the Rhinelands and Scandinavia: 9-21. Wien: Fassbaender.
118. SINDÆCK, S.M. 2007a. Networks and nodal points: the emergence of towns in early Viking Age Scandinavia. Antiquity 81: 119-32.
119. SINDÆCK, S.M. 2007b. The small world of the Vikings: networks in early medieval communication and exchange. Norwegian Archaeological Review 40: 59-74.
120. SKRE, D. 2001. The social context of settlement in Norway in the first millennium AD. Norwegian Archaeological Review 34: 1-34.
121. SMALL, A., C. THOMAS & D.M. WILSON. 1973. St Ninian's Isle and its treasure. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
122. STEFÁNSSON, M. 2003. The Norse island communities of the Western Ocean, in K. Helle (ed.) The Cambridge History of Scandinavia: 202-20. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
123. SVANBERG, F. 2003. Decolonizing the Viking Age 1. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International.
124. VÉSTEINSSON, O., H. PORLAKSSON & A. EINARSSON. 2006. Reykjavík 871 ±2 Landnámssýningin: the settlement exhibition. Reykjavík: Reykjavík City Museum.
125. WALLACE, B.L. 2003. L'Anse aux Meadows and Vinland: an abandoned experiment, in J.H. Barrett (ed.) Contact, continuity and collapse: the Norse colonization of the North Atlantic (Studies in the Early Middle Ages 5): 207-38. Turnhout: Brepols.
126. WAMERS, E. 1985. Insularer Metallschmuck in wikingerzeitlichen Gräbern Nordeuropas: Unteruchungen zur Skandinavishen Westexpansion (Offa-Bücher 56). Neumünster: Wachholtz.
127. WAMERS, E. 1998. Insular finds in Viking Age Scandinavia and the state formation of Norway, in H. Clarke, M. Ní Mhaonaigh & R. Ó Floinn (ed.) Ireland and Scandinavia in the Early Viking Age: 37-72. Dublin: Four Courts.
128. WARNER, R. 1976. Scottish silver arm-rings: an analysis of weights. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 107: 136-43.
129. WEBER, B. 1992. Norwegian exports in Orkney and Shetland during the Viking and Middle Ages, in R.A. Hall, R. Hodges & H. Clarke (ed.) Medieval Europe 1992: exchange and trade pre-printedpapers: 159-67. York: Medieval York 1992.
130. WEBER, B. 1993. Norwegian reindeer antler export to Orkney. Universitetets Oldsaksamling Årbok 1991/1992: 161-74.
131. WESTERDAHL, C. 2008. Boats apart: building and equipping an Iron-Age and early-medieval ship in Northern Europe. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 37: 17-31.
132. WICKER, N.L. 1998. Selective female infanticide as partial explanation for the dearth of women in Viking Age Scandinavia, in G. Halsall (ed.) Violence and society in the Early Medieval West: 205-21. Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer.
133. WICKHAM, C. 2005. Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, 400-800. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
134. WOOLF, A. 2007. From Pictland to Alba: 789-1070. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
135. WORMALD, C.P. 1982. Viking studies: whence and whither?, in R.T. Farrell (ed.) The Vikings: 128-53. London: Phillimore.