Defence of bipedalism

Human Evolution

Volumn 19, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 19-44

  Walter, M ^a  

^a AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

Animal defence systems; Bipedalism; Human evolution

Indexed keywords

EID: 52449133292     PISSN: 03939375     EISSN: 1824310X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/BF02438907     Document Type: Article

References (100)

1. Akira S. 1969 An ecological study of chimpanzees in a savannah woodland. Primates, 10: 103-148.
2. Anderson C. M. 1986 Predation and primate evolution. Primates, 27: 15-39.
3. Bailey R. C. 1991 The behavioural ecology of Efe pygmy men in the Ituri Forest, Zaire. Anthropological Papers, No.86. Ann Arbor: Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan.
4. Bailey T. N. 1993 The African leopard. New York: Columbia University Press.
5. Beier P. 1991 Cougar attacks on humans in the United States and Canada. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 19: 403-412.
6. Boesch, C. 1991 The effects of leopard predation on grouping patterns in forest chimpanzees. Behaviour, 117: 220-242.
7. Boesch C. & Boesch-Achermann H. 2000 The chimpanzees of the Tai Forest. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
8. Bourne G H. & Cohen, M. 1975 The gentle giants. New York: G P. Putnam & Sons.
9. Brain C. K. 1981 The hunters or the hunted? Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.
10. Bright M. 2000 Man-eaters. London: Robson Books.
11. Bueler L. E. 1973 African hunting dog. In: (L. E. Bueler) Wild dogs of the world, pp.224-230. New York: Stein & Day.
12. Burton R. G 1946 A book of man-eaters. London: Hutchinson.
13. Carrier D. R. 1984 The energetic paradox of human running and hominid evolution. Current Anthropology, 25: 483-495.
14. Collins D. A. & McGrew, W. C. 1988 Habitats of three groups of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in Western Tanzania compared. Journal of Human Evolution, 17: 553-574
15. Coppens Y. & Senut B. 1991 Origine(s) de la bipedie chez les hominides. Paris: Editions du CNRS (Cahiers de paleoanthroplogie).
16. Corbett J. 1979[1944] Man-eaters of Kumaon. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.
17. Cousins D. 1990 The magnificent gorilla. England: The Book Guild Ltd.
18. Cowley C. 1968 Fabled tribe. London: Longmans.
19. Curio E. 1976 The ethology of predation. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer-Verlag.
20. Dixson A. F. 1981 The natural history of the gorilla. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
21. Dunbar R. I. M. 1988 Primate social systems. London and Sydney: Croom Helm.
22. Eaton R. L. 1974 The cheetah: the biology and behaviour of an endangered species. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.
23. Edmunds M. 1974 Defence in animals: a survey of anti-predator defences. UK: Longman.
24. Errington P. L. 1967 Of predation and life. Iowa: Iowa State University Press.
25. Ewer R. F. 1973 The carnivores. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
26. Falk D. 1991 Breech birth of the genus Homo: why bipedalism preceded the increase in brain size. In (Y. Coppens & B. Senut eds.). Origine(s) de la bipedie chez les hominides, pp.259-266. Paris: Editions du CNRS.
27. Fay J. M., Carroll, R., Peterhans, J. C. K., & Harris, D. 1995 Leopard attack on and consumption of gorillas in the Central African Republic. Journal of Human Evolution, 29: 93-99.
28. Filer, F. C. 1987 The adoption of bipedalism in the hominids: a new hypothesis. Human Evolution, 2:135-147.
29. Fossey D. 1983 Gorillas in the mist. Boston: Houghton and Stoughton.
30. Guggisberg C. A. W. 1975 Wild cats of the world. New York: Taplinger Publishing Company.
31. Haraway D. J. 1989 Primate visions. New York: Routledge.
32. Hewes G W. 1961 Food transport and the origins of hominid bipedalism. American Anthropologist, 63: 687-710.
33. Hewlett B. S. & Van Den Koppel, J. M. H. & M. 1986 Causes of death among Aka pygmies of the Central African Republic. In (L. L. Cavalli-Sforza ed.). African Pygmies, pp.45-63. Orlando: Academic Press.
34. Hiraiwa-Hasegawa M., Byrne, R. W., Tarasaki, H. & Bryne, J. K. 1986 Aggression towards large carnivore by wild chimpanzees of Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania. Folia Primatologia, 47: 8-13.
35. Hunt K. D. 1994 The evolution of human bipedality: ecology and functional morphology. Journal of Human Evolution, 26: 183-202.
36. Isbell L. A. & Young T. P. 1993 Human presence reduces predation in a free ranging vervet monkey population in Kenya. Animal Behaviour, 45: 1233-1235.
37. Itani J. 1979 Distribution and adaptation of chimpanzees in an arid area. In (D. A. Hamburg & E. R. McCown eds.) The great apes, pp.55-72. Menlo Park, California: Benjamin/Cumrnings Publishing Company.
38. Jablonski N. G & Chaplin G 1992 The origin of hominid bipedalism re-examined. Archaeology in Oceania, 27: 113-119.
39. 1993 Origin of habitual terrestrial bipedalism in the ancestor of the Hominidae. Journal of Human Evolution, 24: 259-280.
40. Jay P. 1965 Field studies. In (A. M. Schrider, H. F. Harlow, & F. Stollinz eds.) Behaviour of nonhuman primates: II. Modern research trends, pp.525-591. New York, London: Academic Press.
41. Johanson D. C. & Edey M. A. 1981 Lucy: The beginnings of mankind. London: Granada.
42. Kitchener A. 1991 The natural history of the wild cats. London: Christopher Helm (A & C Black).
43. Knight J. 2000 Culling demons. In (J. Knight) Natural enemies, pp.145-169. London and New York: Routledge.
44. Kortlandt A. 1980 How might early hominids have defended themselves against large predators and food competitors? Journal of Human Evolution, 9: 79-112.
45. Kruuk H. 1972 The spotted hyena: a study of predation and social behaviour. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
46. LaLumiere L. P. 1991 The evolution of the genus Homo: where it happened. In (M. Roede, J. Wind, J. M. Patrick, & V. Reynolds eds) The Aquatic Ape: Fact or Fiction?, pp.23-35. London and Canada: Souvenir Press (E & A) Ltd.
47. Leaky R. E. & Lewin, R. 1978 People of the lake. Garden City, New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday.
48. Lee R. B. 1979a The Dobe !Kung. New York: Holt Rinehart & Winston.
49. 1979b The !Kung San. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
50. Lee R. B. & de Vore I., eds. 1976 Kalahari hunter gatherers. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press
51. Lewin R. 1987a Four legs bad, two legs good. Science, 235: 969-970.
52. 1987b Bones of contention. New York: Simon and Schuster.
53. Leyhausen P. 1979 Cat behaviour. (Transl. B. A. Tonkin). New York & London: Garland STPM Press.
54. Livingstone F. B. 1962 Reconstructing man's Pliocene pongid ancestor. American Anthropologist, 64: 301-305.
55. Locke A. 1993 The tigers of Trengganu. Monograph 23. Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.
56. Lovejoy C. O. 1981 The origin of Man. Science, 211: 341-350.
57. Maple T. L. & Hoft M. P. 1982 Gorilla Behaviour. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.
58. Marais E. N. 1956[1939] My friends the baboons. London: Methuen.
59. McGowan C. 1998 The raptor and the lamb. London: Penguin
60. Mech L. D. 1970 The wolf: the ecology and behaviour of an endangered species. New York: Natural History Press.
61. Mills M. G L. 1990 Kalahari hyaenas: comparative behavioural ecology of two species. London: Unwin Hyman.
62. Morgan E. 1991 Why a new theory is needed. In (M. Roede, J. Wind, J. M. Patrick, & V. Reynolds, eds.). The aquatic ape: fact or fiction?, pp.9-22 London and Canada: Souvenir Press (E & A) Ltd.
63. Morris B. 2000 Wildlife depredations in Malawi. In (J. Knight ed). Natural enemies, London and New York: Routledge.
64. O'Brien S. J., Collier G E., Benveniste R. E., Nash W. G., Newman A. K., Simonson J. M., Eichelberger M. A., Seal U. S., Janssen D., Bush M. & Wildt D. E. 1987 Setting the molecular clock in Felidae: the great cats, Panthera. In (R. L. Tilson and U. S. Seal eds.) Tigers of the world, pp.11-27. New Jersey: Noyes Publications.
65. Parker S. T. 1987 A sexual selection model for hominid evolution. Journal of Human Evolution, 2: 235-253.
66. Patterson J. H. 1926[1907] The man-eaters of Tsavo and other East African adventures. London: Macmillan.
67. Perry R. 1964 The world of the tiger. London: Cassell.
68. 1970 Bears. London and New York: Arthur Baker, and Arco Publishing Co.
69. Post L. Van Der 1961 The heart of the hunter. London: Hogarth Press.
70. Post, L. Van Der & Taylor J. 1984 Testament to the Bushmen. Middlesex, UK: Viking (Penguin).
71. Rahm R. 1967 Observations during chimpanzee captures in the Congo. In (D. Starck, R Schneider, & H. J. Kuhn eds.) Neue ergebrisse der primatologie. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag. [Cited in Fay et al., 1995, but with no page references given.]
72. Ravey M. 1978 Bipedalism: An early warning system for Miocene hominoids. Science, 199: 372.
73. Reynolds V. 1967 The apes. New York: Dutton.
74. Rijksen H. D. and Rijksen-Graatsma A. G. 1975 Oran Utan rescue work in north Sumatra. Oryx, 13: 63-71.
75. Rishi V. 1988 Man, mask, and man-eater. Tiger Paper, July-September, 1988.
76. Rodman P. S. and McHenry H. M. 1980 Bioenergetics and the origin of hominid bipedalism. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 52: 103-106.
77. Rose M. D. 1991 The process of bipedalization in hominids. In (Y. Coppens & B. Senut eds.) Origine(s) de la bipedie chez les hominides, pp.37-48. Paris: Editions du CNRS (Cahiers de paleoanthroplogie).
78. Rosevear D. R. 1974 The carnivores of West Africa. London: British Museum (Natural History).
79. Sankhala K. 1977 Tiger, The story of the Indian tiger. New York: Simon and Schuster.
80. Sanyal P. 1987 Managing the man-eaters in the Sundarbans Tiger Reserve of India -a case study. In (R. L. Tilson & U.S. Seal eds.) Tigers of the world, pp.427-434. New Jersey: Noyes Publications.
81. Savage R. J. G. 1977 Evolution in carnivorous animals. Palaeontology, 20:237-271.
82. Schaller G B. 1963 The mountain gorilla. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
83. 1967 The deer and the tiger: a study of wildlife in India. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.
84. 1972 The Serengeti lion. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.
85. 1973 Golden shadows flying hooves. New York: Knopf.
86. Shostak M. 1981 Nisa: the life and words of a !Kung woman. London: Allen Lane
87. Silberbauer G B. 1965 Bushman survey. Report to the Government of Bechuanaland. Gaberones: Bechuanaland Government.
88. 1981 Hunter and habitat in the Central Kalahari Desert. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
89. Sinclair A. R. E., Leaky M. D. & Norton-Griffiths M. 1986 Migration and hominid bipedalism. Nature, 324: 307-308.
90. Teleki G 1973 The predatory behaviour of wild chimpanzees. Lewisberg, USA: Bucknell University Press.
91. Tsukahara T. 1993 Lions eat chimpanzees: the first evidence of predation by lions on wild chimpanzees. American Journal of Primatology, 29:1-11.
92. Turnbull C. M. 1961 The forest people. London: Jonathan Cape.
93. 1965 Wayward servants. Connecticut: Greenwood Press.
94. Turnbull-Kemp P. 1967 The leopard. London: Bailey Bros. & Swinfen.
95. Tutin C. E. G., Mcgrew W. C. & Baldwin P. J. 1981 Responses of chimpanzees to potential predators. In (A. B. Chiarelli & R.S. Corruccini eds.)Primate behaviour and sociobiology, pp.136-141 Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer-Verlag.
96. 1983 Social organisation of savannah-dwelling chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes verus, at Mt Assirik, Senegal. Primates, 24: 154-173.
97. Westcott R. W. 1967 The exhibitionistic origin of human bipedalism. Man, 2: 630.
98. Wheeler P. 1984 Evolution of bipedality and loss of functional body hair in hominids. Journal of Human Evolution, 13: 91-98.r
99. 1988 Stand tall and keep cool. New Scientist, 118: 62-65.
100. Wrangham R. W. 1980 Bipedal locomotion as a feeding adaptation in Gelada Baboons, and its implications for hominid evolution. Journal of Human Evolution, 9: 329-331.