Constructing a China Metaphor: Sukarno's Perception of the PRC and Indonesia's Political Transformation

Journal of Southeast Asian Studies

Volumn 28, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 27-46

  Liu, Hong ^a  

^a NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE   (Singapore)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 5244294906     PISSN: 00224634     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0022463400015162     Document Type: Article

References (133)

1. See for example, John D. Legge, Sukarno: A Political Biography (Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1990 [1972]); Bernhard Dahm, Sukarno and the Struggle for Indonesian Independence, trans. Mary Somers-Heidhues (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1969); C.L. Penders, The Life and Times of Sukarno (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1974); Angus McIntyre, "Sukarno as Artist-Politician", in Indonesian Political Biography: In Search of Cross-Cultural Understanding, ed. Angus McIntyre (Clayton: Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1993), pp. 161-210; and Solichin Salam, Bung Karno: Putera Fajar (Jakarta: Gunung Agung, 1981).
2. See for example, John D. Legge, Sukarno: A Political Biography (Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1990 [1972]); Bernhard Dahm, Sukarno and the Struggle for Indonesian Independence, trans. Mary Somers-Heidhues (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1969); C.L. Penders, The Life and Times of Sukarno (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1974); Angus McIntyre, "Sukarno as Artist-Politician", in Indonesian Political Biography: In Search of Cross-Cultural Understanding, ed. Angus McIntyre (Clayton: Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1993), pp. 161-210; and Solichin Salam, Bung Karno: Putera Fajar (Jakarta: Gunung Agung, 1981).
3. See for example, John D. Legge, Sukarno: A Political Biography (Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1990 [1972]); Bernhard Dahm, Sukarno and the Struggle for Indonesian Independence, trans. Mary Somers-Heidhues (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1969); C.L. Penders, The Life and Times of Sukarno (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1974); Angus McIntyre, "Sukarno as Artist-Politician", in Indonesian Political Biography: In Search of Cross-Cultural Understanding, ed. Angus McIntyre (Clayton: Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1993), pp. 161-210; and Solichin Salam, Bung Karno: Putera Fajar (Jakarta: Gunung Agung, 1981).
4. See for example, John D. Legge, Sukarno: A Political Biography (Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1990 [1972]); Bernhard Dahm, Sukarno and the Struggle for Indonesian Independence, trans. Mary Somers-Heidhues (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1969); C.L. Penders, The Life and Times of Sukarno (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1974); Angus McIntyre, "Sukarno as Artist-Politician", in Indonesian Political Biography: In Search of Cross-Cultural Understanding, ed. Angus McIntyre (Clayton: Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1993), pp. 161-210; and Solichin Salam, Bung Karno: Putera Fajar (Jakarta: Gunung Agung, 1981).
5. See for example, John D. Legge, Sukarno: A Political Biography (Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1990 [1972]); Bernhard Dahm, Sukarno and the Struggle for Indonesian Independence, trans. Mary Somers-Heidhues (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1969); C.L. Penders, The Life and Times of Sukarno (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1974); Angus McIntyre, "Sukarno as Artist-Politician", in Indonesian Political Biography: In Search of Cross-Cultural Understanding, ed. Angus McIntyre (Clayton: Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1993), pp. 161-210; and Solichin Salam, Bung Karno: Putera Fajar (Jakarta: Gunung Agung, 1981).
6. Herbert Feith, The Decline of Constitutional Democracy in Indonesia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1962); and Daniel Lev, The Transition to Guided Democracy: Indonesian Politics, 1957-1959 (Ithaca: Cornell University Modern Indonesian Project, 1966).
7. Herbert Feith, The Decline of Constitutional Democracy in Indonesia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1962); and Daniel Lev, The Transition to Guided Democracy: Indonesian Politics, 1957-1959 (Ithaca: Cornell University Modern Indonesian Project, 1966).
8. Herbert Feith, "Introduction", in Indonesian Political Thinking, 1945-1965, ed. Feith and Daniel Lev (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1970), pp. 1-24.
9. Ide Anak Agung Gde Agung, Twenty Years Indonesian Foreign Policy, 1945-1965 (Yogyakarta: Duta Wacana University Press, 1990 [1972]), p. 251.
10. George M. Kahin, "Indonesia", in Major Governments of Asia, ed. Kahin (Ithaca: Cornell Unversity Press, 1963), p. 638.
11. See for example the criticisms of Kahin's view regarding the impact of China upon Sukarno, in Baladas Ghoshal, Indonesian Politics 1955-59: The Emergence of Guided Democracy (Calcutta: K.P. Bagchi, 1982), pp. 95-96.
12. Sukarno, Indonesia Accuses, ed. and trans. Roger K. Paget (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1975), p. 17.
13. On writings about China published in Indonesia prior to 1950, see Claudine Salmon, Literature in Malay by the Chinese of Indonesia: A Provisional Annotated Bibliography (Paris: Éditions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, 1981), pp. 66-67, 75-76; Kwee Kek Beng, Doea Poeloe Lima Tahoen Sebagai Wartawan, 1922-1947 (Batavia: Kuo, 1948), pp. 32-43; Wu Wenhua and Gan Meifeng, "Benshiji Sanshi dao Wushi Niandai Huawen Tushu zai Yinni" [Chinese books in Indonesia from the 1930s to the 1950s], Dongnanya Zongheng 3 (1993): 41-46.
14. On writings about China published in Indonesia prior to 1950, see Claudine Salmon, Literature in Malay by the Chinese of Indonesia: A Provisional Annotated Bibliography (Paris: Éditions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, 1981), pp. 66-67, 75-76; Kwee Kek Beng, Doea Poeloe Lima Tahoen Sebagai Wartawan, 1922-1947 (Batavia: Kuo, 1948), pp. 32-43; Wu Wenhua and Gan Meifeng, "Benshiji Sanshi dao Wushi Niandai Huawen Tushu zai Yinni" [Chinese books in Indonesia from the 1930s to the 1950s], Dongnanya Zongheng 3 (1993): 41-46.
15. On writings about China published in Indonesia prior to 1950, see Claudine Salmon, Literature in Malay by the Chinese of Indonesia: A Provisional Annotated Bibliography (Paris: Éditions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, 1981), pp. 66-67, 75-76; Kwee Kek Beng, Doea Poeloe Lima Tahoen Sebagai Wartawan, 1922-1947 (Batavia: Kuo, 1948), pp. 32-43; Wu Wenhua and Gan Meifeng, "Benshiji Sanshi dao Wushi Niandai Huawen Tushu zai Yinni" [Chinese books in Indonesia from the 1930s to the 1950s], Dongnanya Zongheng 3 (1993): 41-46.
16. Mary Somers, "Peranakan Chinese Politics in Indonesia" (Ph.D. diss., Cornell University, 1965), p. 100.
17. Kwee Kek Beng, Doea Poeloe Lima, p. 35; Hong Yuanyuan [Ang Goan Jan], Hong Yuanyuan Zizhuan [An autobiography of Hong Yuanyuan]. Translated from the unpublished English manuscript by Liang Yingming (Beijing: Zhongguo Huaqiao Chuban Gongsi, 1989), p. 79.
18. Kwee Kek Beng, Doea Poeloe Lima, p. 35; Hong Yuanyuan [Ang Goan Jan], Hong Yuanyuan Zizhuan [An autobiography of Hong Yuanyuan]. Translated from the unpublished English manuscript by Liang Yingming (Beijing: Zhongguo Huaqiao Chuban Gongsi, 1989), p. 79.
19. Sukarno, "Indonesianism and Pan Asianism" (1928), in idem., Under the Banner of Revolution, vol. 1 (Jakarta: Publication Committee, 1966), pp. 67-71.
20. Sukarno, Nationalism, Islam and Marxism (Ithaca: Cornell University Modem Indonesian Project, 1984 [1926]), p. 43; Sukarno, Indonesia Accuses, p. 55; and Sin Min (Semarang), 14 Nov. 1956.
21. Sukarno, Nationalism, Islam and Marxism (Ithaca: Cornell University Modem Indonesian Project, 1984 [1926]), p. 43; Sukarno, Indonesia Accuses, p. 55; and Sin Min (Semarang), 14 Nov. 1956.
22. Sukarno, Nationalism, Islam and Marxism (Ithaca: Cornell University Modem Indonesian Project, 1984 [1926]), p. 43; Sukarno, Indonesia Accuses, p. 55; and Sin Min (Semarang), 14 Nov. 1956.
23. Sukarno, "The Birth of Pantja Sila" (1945), in Pantja Sila: The Basis of the State of the Republic of Indonesia (Jakarta: Department of Information, 1964), p. 27. According to Bernhard Dahm, "it was quite possible that the San Min Chu 1 [Three People's Principles] was a model for the idea of Pantja Sila". See his Sukarno, p. 339.
24. Sukarno, "The Birth of Pantja Sila" (1945), in Pantja Sila: The Basis of the State of the Republic of Indonesia (Jakarta: Department of Information, 1964), p. 27. According to Bernhard Dahm, "it was quite possible that the San Min Chu 1 [Three People's Principles] was a model for the idea of Pantja Sila". See his Sukarno, p. 339.
25. Bernhard Dahm suggests that Sukarno's call for unlimited cooperation among all Asian peoples was "no doubt under the influence of Sun Yat-sen", see Dahm, Sukarno, pp. 115-16.
26. Sukarno, "Indonesianism and Pan Asianism", p. 67.
27. Ibid.; Raliby Osman, Documenta Historica, vol. 1 (Jakarta: Bulan-Bintang, 1953), p. 213; and Merdeka, 10 Jun. 1946.
28. Ibid.; Raliby Osman, Documenta Historica, vol. 1 (Jakarta: Bulan-Bintang, 1953), p. 213; and Merdeka, 10 Jun. 1946.
29. Ibid.; Raliby Osman, Documenta Historica, vol. 1 (Jakarta: Bulan-Bintang, 1953), p. 213; and Merdeka, 10 Jun. 1946.
30. Sukarno, Nationalism, Islam and Marxism, pp. 40-41, 43, 58, 60.
31. This information on Sukarno's view of New Democracy is provided by Mr Soeto Mei-sen, Sukarno's personal assistant on China affairs and his Chinese interpreter (interview in Hong Kong, 10 May 1994). According to him, Sukarno's understanding of Chinese political system was very much influenced by Barioen's Melihat Tiongkok Baru (Jakarta: Rada, 1952), which paints China in a favourable populist light. For a more detailed discussion of Indonesian intellectuals' views of Chinese politics, including New Democracy, see Liu, "The China Metaphor", Chapter 3.
32. Cited in R. Howie, "Sino-Indonesian Relations, 1950-1959: A Study of the Chinese People's Republic's Policy towards a Non-Communist State in South East Asia" (M.A. thesis, University of Western Australia, 1966), pp. 109-110.
33. Interview with Chen Lishui, the Indonesian interpreter for Chinese ambassadors throughout the 1950s, who met with Sukarno on many formal and informal occasions (Beijing, 23 Jun. 1994).
34. Zhu Lin, Dashi Furen Huiyilu: Xunyali, Yinni, Faguo, Meiguo [Memoirs of an ambassador's wife: Hungary, Indonesia, France, and the USA] (Beijing: Shijie Zhishi Chubanshe, 1991), p. 44; and Yao Zhongming, et al., Jiangjun, Waijiaojia, Yishujia-Huang Zhen Jilian Wenji [General, diplomat, and artist - A collection of articles in commemorating Huang Zhen] (Beijing: Jiefangjun Chubanshe, 1992), pp. 342-43.
35. Zhu Lin, Dashi Furen Huiyilu: Xunyali, Yinni, Faguo, Meiguo [Memoirs of an ambassador's wife: Hungary, Indonesia, France, and the USA] (Beijing: Shijie Zhishi Chubanshe, 1991), p. 44; and Yao Zhongming, et al., Jiangjun, Waijiaojia, Yishujia-Huang Zhen Jilian Wenji [General, diplomat, and artist - A collection of articles in commemorating Huang Zhen] (Beijing: Jiefangjun Chubanshe, 1992), pp. 342-43.
36. ZhU Lin, Dashi, pp. 63-64.
37. Huang graduated from the prestigious Shanghai Art Academy before joining the CCP. At the request of Sukarno in 1958, China extended Huang's tenure as the ambassador for three additional years. This was unprecedented in the diplomatic practice of both China and Indonesia. See Yao Zhongming, Jiangjun, pp. 341-43, 361. On Sukrno's artistic sensibility and its political implications, see Angus McIntyre, "Sukarno as Artist-Politician", pp. 161-210.
38. Huang graduated from the prestigious Shanghai Art Academy before joining the CCP. At the request of Sukarno in 1958, China extended Huang's tenure as the ambassador for three additional years. This was unprecedented in the diplomatic practice of both China and Indonesia. See Yao Zhongming, Jiangjun, pp. 341-43, 361. On Sukrno's artistic sensibility and its political implications, see Angus McIntyre, "Sukarno as Artist-Politician", pp. 161-210.
39. Yao Zhongming, Jiangjun, pp. 633-34; Zhu Lin, Dashi, p. 64; and David Mozingo, Chinese Policy toward Indonesia, 1949-1967 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1976), p. 150.
40. Yao Zhongming, Jiangjun, pp. 633-34; Zhu Lin, Dashi, p. 64; and David Mozingo, Chinese Policy toward Indonesia, 1949-1967 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1976), p. 150.
41. Yao Zhongming, Jiangjun, pp. 633-34; Zhu Lin, Dashi, p. 64; and David Mozingo, Chinese Policy toward Indonesia, 1949-1967 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1976), p. 150.
42. Interview with Chen Lishui (Beijing, 23 Jun. 1994).
43. See for details in Ronald C. Keith, The Diplomacy of Zhou Enlai (London: Macmillan, 1989), pp. 80-87; and Mozingo, Chinese Policy toward Indonesia, Chapter 4.
44. See for details in Ronald C. Keith, The Diplomacy of Zhou Enlai (London: Macmillan, 1989), pp. 80-87; and Mozingo, Chinese Policy toward Indonesia, Chapter 4.
45. Interviews with Soeto Mei-sen and Chen Lishui. Willard A. Hanna's contention that China extended an invitation to Sukarno after he had been invited by the United States and the Soviet Union is mistaken. See "Sukarno: The Devolution of a Revolutionary", in his Eight Nation Makers (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1964), p. 71.
46. John D. Legge points out, "the end of 1956 marks a turning point in Sukarno's political career", Sukarno, p. 271. Willard A. Hanna concurs, "for both Sukarno and for Indonesia, the year 1956 was by far the most critical since 1945. It was a year of chaos, when every individual national leader was privately and publicly seeking for the 'way out', but everybody blocked everybody else's exit. In the past Bung Karno had always provided the nation with the formulas which inspired action, but in 1956 Bung Karno, like everyone else, seemed to be baffled". "Sukarno: The Devolution of a Revolutionary", p. 70.
47. John D. Legge points out, "the end of 1956 marks a turning point in Sukarno's political career", Sukarno, p. 271. Willard A. Hanna concurs, "for both Sukarno and for Indonesia, the year 1956 was by far the most critical since 1945. It was a year of chaos, when every individual national leader was privately and publicly seeking for the 'way out', but everybody blocked everybody else's exit. In the past Bung Karno had always provided the nation with the formulas which inspired action, but in 1956 Bung Karno, like everyone else, seemed to be baffled". "Sukarno: The Devolution of a Revolutionary", p. 70.
48. Quoted in Ganis Harsono, Recollections of an Indonesian Diplomat in the Sukarno Era (St. Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 1977), p. 145.
49. Roeslan Abdulgani, The Foreign Minister's Report to Parliament on President Soekarno's Second Tour, August 26-October 16, 1956 (Jakarta: Department of Foreign Affairs, 1956), p. 47.
50. See for example, "Mengapa Presiden Ambil Tjontoh Pembangunan dari RRT?", Sin Min, 31 Aug. 1957. The United States ambassador to Indonesia, Hugh S. Cumming, seemed to have the same impression. 'There isn't a great deal to say [about Sukarno's trip to the U.S. in 1956]", Cumming recalled later, "Sukarno's own book shows his disappointment at not having been treated with greater intimacy.... He was disillusioned a little bit - disillusioned in that respect; overwhelmed in another - with the hopelessness of ever bringing his people up to us". See "A Transcript of a Recorded Interview with Ambassador Hugh S. Cumming, Jr." (1 Dec. 1966), The John Foster Dulles Oral History Project (Princeton University Library), pp. 23-24.
51. See for example, "Mengapa Presiden Ambil Tjontoh Pembangunan dari RRT?", Sin Min, 31 Aug. 1957. The United States ambassador to Indonesia, Hugh S. Cumming, seemed to have the same impression. 'There isn't a great deal to say [about Sukarno's trip to the U.S. in 1956]", Cumming recalled later, "Sukarno's own book shows his disappointment at not having been treated with greater intimacy.... He was disillusioned a little bit - disillusioned in that respect; overwhelmed in another - with the hopelessness of ever bringing his people up to us". See "A Transcript of a Recorded Interview with Ambassador Hugh S. Cumming, Jr." (1 Dec. 1966), The John Foster Dulles Oral History Project (Princeton University Library), pp. 23-24.
52. Willard A. Hanna, "Moscow Comes to Bung Karno - And So Does Peking", American Universities Field Staff (Southeast Asia Series), no. 20 (30 Nov. 1956), p. 4.
53. Ibid., p. 6.
54. Harsono, Recollections, p. 160.
55. Cited in C.L. Penders, The Life and Times of Sukarno, pp. 154-55.
56. Presiden Sukarno Mengunjungi Tiongkok (issued by the Chinese Embassy in Jakarta, 1956), p. 1.
57. Wang En-yuan, "President Sukarno in Peking", People's China, no. 21 (1 Nov. 1956), p. 8.
58. Harsono, Recollections, p. 162.
59. Roeslan Abdulgani, Foreign Minister's Report, p. 54.
60. Harsono, Recollections, p. 162.
61. The Writings of Mao Zedong, 1949-1976, vol. 2, ed. Michael Y.M. Kau and John K. Leung (Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 1992), pp. 143, 145.
62. Cited in Su Jia Luo Zongtong zai Zhongguo [President Sukarno in China] (Hong Kong: Zhonghua Shuju, 1957), pp. 167-68. This is a collection of Sukarno's speeches in China; the Indonesian version, entitled Presiden Sukarno di Tiongkok, was published by the Foreign Language Press in Peking in 1956. After comparing the Chinese version with the Indonesian one as well as with those speeches appearing in the Indonesian newspapers, I found the Chinese translation to be accurate.
63. Sin Min, 5 and 6 Oct. 1956. It should be pointed out that, unlike the previous tours to the US and the USSR, Sukarno's China trip was widely and positively covered by the Indonesian press. See, for example, A. Karim D.P., "Dengan Bung Karno Melihat Dunia Baru: Perobahan Tjara Berpikir di RRT", Sin Po (Jakarta), 13-16 Nov. 1956; Juti [Melik Sayuti], "Limabelas Hari di Tiongkok", Suluh Indonesia (Jakarta), 26-30 Oct. 1956; and Adinegoro, "Xin Shijie: Suitong Zongtong Chuguo Fanwenji" [A new world: visiting foreign countries with the President] Hsin Pao (Jakarta), 23 Oct.-l Nov. 1956.
64. Sin Min, 5 and 6 Oct. 1956. It should be pointed out that, unlike the previous tours to the US and the USSR, Sukarno's China trip was widely and positively covered by the Indonesian press. See, for example, A. Karim D.P., "Dengan Bung Karno Melihat Dunia Baru: Perobahan Tjara Berpikir di RRT", Sin Po (Jakarta), 13-16 Nov. 1956; Juti [Melik Sayuti], "Limabelas Hari di Tiongkok", Suluh Indonesia (Jakarta), 26-30 Oct. 1956; and Adinegoro, "Xin Shijie: Suitong Zongtong Chuguo Fanwenji" [A new world: visiting foreign countries with the President] Hsin Pao (Jakarta), 23 Oct.-l Nov. 1956.
65. Sin Min, 5 and 6 Oct. 1956. It should be pointed out that, unlike the previous tours to the US and the USSR, Sukarno's China trip was widely and positively covered by the Indonesian press. See, for example, A. Karim D.P., "Dengan Bung Karno Melihat Dunia Baru: Perobahan Tjara Berpikir di RRT", Sin Po (Jakarta), 13-16 Nov. 1956; Juti [Melik Sayuti], "Limabelas Hari di Tiongkok", Suluh Indonesia (Jakarta), 26-30 Oct. 1956; and Adinegoro, "Xin Shijie: Suitong Zongtong Chuguo Fanwenji" [A new world: visiting foreign countries with the President] Hsin Pao (Jakarta), 23 Oct.-l Nov. 1956.
66. Interview with Soeto Mei-sen (Hong Kong, 10 May 1994).
67. Zou Sheng, Su Jia Luo, pp. 162-63.
68. Roeslan Abdulgani, Foreign Minister's Report, p. 47.
69. Zou Sheng, Su Jia Luo, p. 154.
70. A. Karim D.P., "Dengan Bung Karno Melihat Dunia Baru".
71. Zou Sheng, Su Jia Luo, p. 117.
72. Ibid., pp. 117, 132.
73. Interview with Chen Lishui, who was present at the Mao-Sukarno meeting. When visiting Indonesia in April 1961, Marshal Chen Yi, Chinese vice premier and minister of foreign affairs, said to Sukarno thar"we treat you as our friend. I think there is no harm in being a bourgeoisie revolutionary; Mr. Sun Yat-sen was one of our great historical figures". See Hu Shiyang, Chen Yi Zhuang [A Biography of Chen Yi] (Beijing: Dantai Zhongguo Chubanshe, 1991), p. 574.
74. He Xiaolu, Yuanshuai Waijiaojia [The Marshal diplomat] (Beijing: Jiefangjun Wenyi Chubanshe, 1985), p. 187; Jiang Hongwu, Chen Yi Zhuang [A Biography of Chen Yi] (Shanghai: Shanghai Renmin Chubanshe, 1992), pp. 702-703.
75. He Xiaolu, Yuanshuai Waijiaojia [The Marshal diplomat] (Beijing: Jiefangjun Wenyi Chubanshe, 1985), p. 187; Jiang Hongwu, Chen Yi Zhuang [A Biography of Chen Yi] (Shanghai: Shanghai Renmin Chubanshe, 1992), pp. 702-703.
76. Interview with Chen Lishui (Beijing, 23 June 1994).
77. He Xiaolu, Yuanshuai, p. 188; Hu Shiyang, Chen Yi Zhuang, pp. 573-74. In his frequent meetings with ambassador Huang Zhen, Sukarno was similarly interested in the issues regarding China's socio-economic development and its mechanisms. See Yao Zhongming, Jiangjun, pp. 376-78.
78. He Xiaolu, Yuanshuai, p. 188; Hu Shiyang, Chen Yi Zhuang, pp. 573-74. In his frequent meetings with ambassador Huang Zhen, Sukarno was similarly interested in the issues regarding China's socio-economic development and its mechanisms. See Yao Zhongming, Jiangjun, pp. 376-78.
79. He Xiaolu, Yuanshuai, p. 188; Hu Shiyang, Chen Yi Zhuang, pp. 573-74. In his frequent meetings with ambassador Huang Zhen, Sukarno was similarly interested in the issues regarding China's socio-economic development and its mechanisms. See Yao Zhongming, Jiangjun, pp. 376-78.
80. Harian Rakjat (Jakarta), 17 Oct. 1956; Hsin Pao, 18 Oct. 1956.
81. Harian Rakjat (Jakarta), 17 Oct. 1956; Hsin Pao, 18 Oct. 1956.
82. Sin Min, l Nov. 1956.
83. Sukarno, Indonesia, Pilihlah Demokrasimu jang Sedjati (Pidato Presiden Sukarno pada Hari Sumpah Pemuda tgl. 28 Oktober 1956 dan Pidato Presiden Sukarno pada Resepsi Kongres P.G.R.I. ke-8 tgl. 30 Okt. 1956), 2nd printing (Jakarta: Jajasan Prapantja, 1961), p. 11.
84. Quoted in Arnold C. Brackman, Indonesian Communism: A History (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1963), p. 227.
85. Associated Press dispatch (Jakarta), 20 Jul. 1957, quoted in Cankao Xiaoxi (Beijing), 22 Jul. 1957.
86. Sukarno, Indonesia, Pilihlah, p. 24.
87. Quoted in George Kahin's preface to Sukarno, Marhaen and Proletarian (Ithaca: Cornell Modern Indonesian Project, 1960), p. iii.
88. Ibid., p. 19. (Emphases are original.)
89. Ibid., pp. 19-20.
90. New China News Agency, 14 Nov. 1956. See also, "Mengapa Presiden Ambil Tjontoh Pembangunan dari RRT?" Sin Min, 31 Aug. 1957.
91. New China News Agency, 14 Nov. 1956. See also, "Mengapa Presiden Ambil Tjontoh Pembangunan dari RRT?" Sin Min, 31 Aug. 1957.
92. Tay Kong Sian Po (Surabaya), 11 Jun. 1957.
93. Seng Hwo Pao (Jakarta), 20 Apr. 1957; and Brackman, Indonesian Communism, p. 227.
94. Seng Hwo Pao (Jakarta), 20 Apr. 1957; and Brackman, Indonesian Communism, p. 227.
95. Hsin Pao, 18 Oct. 1956.
96. Sukarno, Indonesia, Pilihlah, pp. 21-22.
97. Associated Press dispatch (Jakarta), 20 Jul. 1957, quoted in Cankao Xiaoxi, 22 Jul. 1957.
98. Hsin Pao, 12 Nov. 1956; Sin Min, 13 Nov. 1956.
99. Hsin Pao, 12 Nov. 1956; Sin Min, 13 Nov. 1956.
100. The best studies of Indonesian politics during the Guided Democracy era remain to be Daniel Lev's The Transition to Guided Democracy, and Herbert Feith, "Dynamics of Guided Democracy", in Indonesia, ed. Ruth McVey (New Haven: HRAF Press, 1963), pp. 309-409. On some of the more recent insightful observations, see Democracy in Indonesia: 1950s and 1990s, ed. David Bouchier and John Legge (Clayton: Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1994).
101. The best studies of Indonesian politics during the Guided Democracy era remain to be Daniel Lev's The Transition to Guided Democracy, and Herbert Feith, "Dynamics of Guided Democracy", in Indonesia, ed. Ruth McVey (New Haven: HRAF Press, 1963), pp. 309-409. On some of the more recent insightful observations, see Democracy in Indonesia: 1950s and 1990s, ed. David Bouchier and John Legge (Clayton: Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1994).
102. The best studies of Indonesian politics during the Guided Democracy era remain to be Daniel Lev's The Transition to Guided Democracy, and Herbert Feith, "Dynamics of Guided Democracy", in Indonesia, ed. Ruth McVey (New Haven: HRAF Press, 1963), pp. 309-409. On some of the more recent insightful observations, see Democracy in Indonesia: 1950s and 1990s, ed. David Bouchier and John Legge (Clayton: Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1994).
103. Quoted from The Devious Dalang: Sukarno and the So-called Untung Putsch, Eye-Witness Report by Bambang S. Widjanarko, ed. Radhi S. Karni (The Hague: Interdoc, 1975), p. 100.
104. This scheme was first suggested by the PKI leaders and it was reported that the PRC enthusiastically supported the plan. See Ide Anak Agung Gde Agung, Twenty Years Indonesian Foreign Policy, pp. 441-42; and Mozingo, Chinese Policy toward Indonesia, p. 227.
105. This scheme was first suggested by the PKI leaders and it was reported that the PRC enthusiastically supported the plan. See Ide Anak Agung Gde Agung, Twenty Years Indonesian Foreign Policy, pp. 441-42; and Mozingo, Chinese Policy toward Indonesia, p. 227.
106. Interviews with Huang Shuhai, who was Chen Yi's interpreter (Washington, D.C., 21 Jul. 1993), and with Soeto Mei-sen (Hong Kong, 10 May 1994). Some details of this talk were later repeated in an important press conference by Chen himself in Beijing on 29 September 1965. In this press conference he dealt with a variety of international issues, including the Sino-Indian Boundary question, the Second African-Asian Conference, China's development of nuclear weapons, and Sino-U.S. relationship. Chen Yi concluded his talk with this remark: "With the defeat of U.S. imperialism, the time will come when imperialism and colonialism will be really liquidated throughout the world. The ideal is bound to come true when the world truly becoming a community of nations with different social systems coexisting peacefully. China is ready to make all the necessary sacrifices for this noble ideal". For the full text of Chen Yi's speech, see The People's Republic of China, 1949-1979: A Documentary Survey, vol. 2, ed. Harold C. Hinton (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources Inc., 1980), pp. 1247-53.
107. The New Life Movement in early 1945 included contents such as "respect your parents", "do not tell lies", "learn reading and writing", and "get up early and start working early in the morning". See Shigeru Sato, War, Nationalism, and Peasants: Java Under the Japanese Occupation, 1942-1945 (Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 1994), pp. 77-79.
108. Sin Min, 27 Apr. 1957.
109. Sumarno was appointed by Sukarno in 1960 as the Head of Region (Governor of Jakarta), who reported directly to the President. See McIntyre, "Sukarno as Artist-Politician", p. 182.
110. Seng Hwo Pao, 27 Jun. 1957; and Xia Minzhi, "Yindunixiya de Jiangjunmen zai Beijing" [Indonesian Generals in Peking], Minzhu Ribao (Medan), 28 Jun. 1957.
111. Seng Hwo Pao, 27 Jun. 1957; and Xia Minzhi, "Yindunixiya de Jiangjunmen zai Beijing" [Indonesian Generals in Peking], Minzhu Ribao (Medan), 28 Jun. 1957.
112. Kol. Dr. Sumarno,"'New Life Movement' di RRT Dapat Tjontoh di Indonesia", Sin Min, 29 Jul. 1957.
113. Sin Min, 6 Aug. 1957.
114. Sukarno, "1957, a Year of Decision in Indonesian History", Indonesian Spectator (Jakarta), 1 Sep. 1957, pp. 14-15.
115. On the evolution of this movement, see Van der Kroef, "Indonesia's 'New Life' Movement", Eastern World 11 (Nov. 1957): 16-19.
116. 83"'Turun ke Desa' dari 'Ivory Tower"', Suluh Indonesia, 17 Jan. 1964.
117. Mingguan Seng Hwo Pao (Jakarta), 1 Jan. 1965.
118. Peter C. Hauswedell, "Sukarno: Radical or Conservative? Indonesian Politics 1964-65", Indonesia 15 (1973): 136.
119. For details see Hong Liu, "Pramoedya Ananta Toer and China: The Transformation of a cultural Intellectual", Indonesia 61 (1996): 119-43.
120. Cited in The Indonesian Revolution: Basic Documents and the Idea of Guided Democracy (Jakarta: Department of Information, Republic of Indonesia, 1960), p. 90. (Emphasis is original.)
121. Merdeka, 30 Oct. 1956.
122. Keng Po (Jakarta), 14 Dec. 1956.
123. Ide Anak Agung Gde Agung, Twenty Years Indonesian Foreign Policy, p. 414.
124. Soekarno, Leader of the Indonesian People: A Short Biography (issued by the Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia in Peking, 1956), p. 14.
125. This emphasis on the theme of unity and harmony was a central characteristic of Sukarno's thinking. In the words of Mohammad Hatta, who had known Sukarno for over thirty years, "As a lover of art, Sukarno looks at everything from its beautiful side, in its harmonious surroundings and in its perfect unity. That is why unity has become for him the most important thing and the end of all his efforts." Antara News Bulletin, 8 Mar. 1957.
126. Sukarno, Indonesia, Pilihlah, p. 21; and his 9 Nov. 1956, Bandung speech, in New China News Agency, 14 Nov. 1956.
127. Sukarno, Indonesia, Pilihlah, p. 21; and his 9 Nov. 1956, Bandung speech, in New China News Agency, 14 Nov. 1956.
128. Sukarno, Marhaen and Proletarian, p. 19.
129. This observation was confirmed by Hugh S. Cumming, Jr., American ambassador to Indonesia, who reported that "Sukarno was especially impressed by confidence displayed by top Red Chinese in their leadership, and by outward appearance of economic progress in Communist China". The Indonesians' enthusiastic reactions to the PRC, he said, were partly the result of "an Indonesian sense of kinship with Communist China as fellow Asian country in alleged struggle against 'colonialism and imperialism'". See "Telegram from the Embassy in Indonesia to the Department of State" (27 Oct. 1956), Foreign Relations of the United States, 1955-1957, vol. 22 (Southeast Asia), ed. Robert J. McMahon et al. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1989), pp. 316-17. On another occasion, Cumming suggested that "Sukarno saw, particularly in China, conditions were more obtainable to him than those in the Soviet Union". See "A Transcript of a Recorded Interview with Ambassador Hugh S. Cumming, Jr.", p. 24.
130. This observation was confirmed by Hugh S. Cumming, Jr., American ambassador to Indonesia, who reported that "Sukarno was especially impressed by confidence displayed by top Red Chinese in their leadership, and by outward appearance of economic progress in Communist China". The Indonesians' enthusiastic reactions to the PRC, he said, were partly the result of "an Indonesian sense of kinship with Communist China as fellow Asian country in alleged struggle against 'colonialism and imperialism'". See "Telegram from the Embassy in Indonesia to the Department of State" (27 Oct. 1956), Foreign Relations of the United States, 1955-1957, vol. 22 (Southeast Asia), ed. Robert J. McMahon et al. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1989), pp. 316-17. On another occasion, Cumming suggested that "Sukarno saw, particularly in China, conditions were more obtainable to him than those in the Soviet Union". See "A Transcript of a Recorded Interview with Ambassador Hugh S. Cumming, Jr.", p. 24.
131. Cumming, "A Transcript", pp. 19-20; Brackman, Indonesian Communism, p. 227; and The Indonesian Revolution, pp. 90-91.
132. Cumming, "A Transcript", pp. 19-20; Brackman, Indonesian Communism, p. 227; and The Indonesian Revolution, pp. 90-91.
133. Cumming, "A Transcript", pp. 19-20; Brackman, Indonesian Communism, p. 227; and The Indonesian Revolution, pp. 90-91.