Cutthroats and Casbah dancers, muezzins and timeless sands: Musical images of the Middle East

Nineteenth Century Music

Volumn 22, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 20-53

  Locke, Ralph P ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 52049109383     PISSN: 01482076     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/746790     Document Type: Review

References (135)

1. Confusingly, "Orient" is used more often, at least in North America, to refer to East and South Asia (the "Far East").
2. The Near- and Middle Eastern Orient can even at times include Greece and other countries around the Black Sea, and of course Spain during its centuries of Moorish rule. These various southern and eastern European regions, though, are largely excluded from the present study. Compare Oliver Heidemann, Luigi Cherubini: Les Abencérages, ou l'étendard de Grenade: Untersuchungen zur Operngeschichte des französischen Empire (Münster, 1994)
3. and Anke Schmitt, Der Exotismus in der deutschen Oper zwischen Mozart und Spohr (Hamburg, 1988).
4. The problem of distinguishing ancient Egyptian from Arab- "Oriental" is treated in Bartoli, "A la recherche d'une représentation sonore de l'Égypte antique: l'égyptomanie musicale en France de Rossini à Debussy," in L'Égyptomanie à l'épreuve de l'archéologie, ed. Jean-Marcel Humbert (Paris, 1996), pp. 479-506.
5. A second article by Bartoli gives close attention to certain figures discussed below, notably David, Reyer, Salvador-Daniel, Saint-Saëns, Verdi, and Massenet: "L'Évolution des procédés exotiques de Félicien David à Saint-Saëns ou comment s'est ponctuée la musique orientale en France au XIXe siècle," Revue belge de musicologie 51 (forthcoming).
6. Further on antique color(lessness), see Michael Walter, "Exotik oder Farblosigkeit: Antikebilder in der Oper des 19. Jahrhunderts," Humanistische Bildung 19 (1996), 117-55 (with discussions of operas by Spontini, Berlioz, Donizetti, and Boito).
7. e siècle saisis d'exotisme (1844-1914)," International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music 26 (1995), 3-33;
8. Timothy D. Taylor, "Peopling the Stage: Opera, Otherness, and New Musical Representations in the Eighteenth Century," Cultural Critique 36 (1997), 55-88;
9. and Derek B. Scott, "Orientalism and Musical Style," Musical Quarterly 82 (1998).
10. Mercure de France, cited in Georges Favre, Boieldieu: sa vie, son œuvre, 2 vols. (Paris, 1944), I, 115n.
11. Edward W. Said, Culture and Imperialism (New York, 1993), p. 186. Confusingly, the word "Orientalism" continues also to be used in its longstanding and more neutral academic sense: the study of Middle Eastern languages, cultures, and politics.
12. Marilyn Butler, "Orientalism," in The Romantic Period, ed. David B. Pirie, Penguin History of Literature 5 (London, 1994), pp. 395-447, 488-92 (quote, p. 399).
13. Said, Culture, p. 186.
14. Felicity A. Nussbaum gives some interesting instances of this, e.g., in English lesbian writing about harem women (Torrid Zones: Maternity, Sexuality, and Empire in Eighteenth-Century English Narratives [Baltimore, 1995], pp. 135-36).
15. The words are by Flaubert (himself an author of Orientalist fiction), cited in César Graña, Modernity and Its Discontents: French Society and the French Man of Letters in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1967), pp. 132. Graña's book was first published in 1964 as Bohemian versus Bourgeois.
16. Graña, Modernity, p. 133.
17. Chris Bongie, Exotic Memories: Literature, Colonialism, and the Fin de Siècle (Stanford, 1991), p. 83.
18. On sages, see Raymond Schwab, Oriental Renaissance: Europe's Rediscovery of India and the East, 1680-1880, trans. Gene Patterson-Black and Victor Reinking (New York, 1984).
19. On languid women, see Nussbaum, Torrid Zones, Zehra F. Arat, Deconstructing Images of "the Turkish Woman" (New York, 1998)
20. and images in Mary Anne Stevens, The Orientalists: Delacroix to Matisse, the Allure of North Africa and the Near East (New York, 1984) and numerous other books on orientalist literature and art (see my "Constructing," p. 264, nn. 14-15).
21. See Mary Hunter, "The alla turca Style in the Late Eighteenth Century: Race and Gender in the Symphony and Seraglio," in Bellman, The Exotic in Western Music, pp. 43-73, 317-23.
22. On the limitations of the alla turca style (to, primarily, a grotesque and noisy "2/4 racket, suitable for ... great celebration [e.g., military], fury, or mockery"), see Jonathan Bellman, The "Style Hongrois" in the Music of Western Europe (Boston, 1993), pp. 45, 66, 68.
23. Compare Schmitt, Exotismus, pp. 301-72, esp. pp. 337-64.
24. Amnon Shiloah, Music in the World of Islam: A Socio-Cultural Study (Detroit, 1995), pp. 120-26. Beethoven's usul (the Turkish term; darb is its rough equivalent in Arabic) is essentially identical to the one in the left-hand part in Mozart's "Rondo alla turca" that ends his Sonata in A Major, K. 331, namely: long, long, short, short, long. A real-life Middle Eastern musician, of course, might subdivide and embellish various beats in the usul as the performance goes along, something that Mozart and Beethoven do not do (thereby emphasizing further the rigidity of "Easterners").
25. Compare my "The Music of the French Political Chanson, 1810-50," in Music in Paris in the Eighteen-Thirties - La Musique à Paris dans les années 1830, ed. Peter A. Bloom (Stuyvesant, N.Y., 1987), pp. 431-56.
26. This aria is also discussed in Miriam K. Whaples, "Early Exoticism Revisited," in Bellman, Exotic, pp. 3-25 and 307-13;
27. and James Parakilas, "How Spain Got a Soul," in Bellman, Exotic, pp. 137-93 and 333-42.
28. Le Moniteur universel, 19 September 1800, cited in Jean-Yves Bras's notes to the 1989 recording (entitled "La Révolution souriante": Thesis THC82015).
29. In Joseph Fouché's article on the opera, in Pipers Enzyklopädie des Musiktheaters, I, 381-82.
30. Some (but not all) of the few "Turkisms" in Italiana are noted in Thomas Betzwieser, "A propos de l'exotisme musical de Rossini," in Gioachino Rossini, 1792-1992: Il testo e la scena, ed. Paolo Fabbri (Pesaro, 1994), pp. 105-26.
31. Bruno Cagli, "The Voyage of the Italian Girl in Algiers," trans. Carole McGrath, p. 2 of the booklet to the LP recording of Italiana on CBS (M3 30948).
32. The tune is drawn from the travel memoirs of the Danish geologist Carsten Niebuhr (1774); see John Warrack, Carl Maria von Weber (London, 1968), pp. 319-20.
33. Little, here, but not nothing: cf. Schmitt, Exotismus, pp. 465-70.
34. (On the nonexoticization of Middle Eastern women in opera, see Hunter, "Alla turca Style.")
35. Number 8 (near the beginning of act II).
36. The moment clearly recalls the episode in Die Zauberflöte in which the Egyptian slaves dance to Papageno's bells.
37. For example, the beginning of act II of the latter's Thaïs (ocean waves and breezes near Alexandria).
38. The Cherubini is an odd case: the most exotic snippet that he borrows is the well-known Chinese tune cited by Rousseau and used by Weber and, later, Hindemith. (The opera incorporates numbers from an earlier opera by Cherubini, set in China.) In his setting, though, it does not sound obtrusively Far-Eastern.
39. Saint-Saëns, letter to Camille Bellaigue, 23 January 1897, trans. in Composers on Music: An Anthology of Composers' Writings from Palestrina to Copland, ed. Sam Morgenstern (New York, 1956), p. 231.
40. See commentary by Floyd K. Grave in his modern edition of Vogler, Pièces de clavecin (1798), Recent Researches in the Music of the Classical Era, vol. 24 (Madison, Wis., 1986), p. ix.
41. Also Floyd K. Grave and Margaret G. Grave, In Praise of Harmony: The Teachings of Abbé Georg Joseph Vogler (Lincoln, Neb., 1987), pp. 161-62, 227-37.
42. Reminiscence (dating from 1844-45, recalling the event, which had taken place forty years earlier) by the poet Franz Grillparzer, in Beethoven: Letters, Journals and Conversations, ed. Michael Hamburger (2nd edn. London, 1966), pp. 62-63.
43. Victor Hugo, Les Orientales: Les Feuilles d'automne, ed. Pierre Albouy (Paris, 1964), p. 23 (from the preface to the original edition of 1829).
44. Siegfried Kracauer, Orpheus in Paris: Offenbach and the Paris of His Time, trans. Gwenda David and Eric Mosbacher (New York, 1938), p. 22.
45. Janet E. Buerger and David Kwasigroh, "Daguene: The Artist," Image: Journal of Photography and Motion Pictures of the International Museum of Photography at George Eastman House 28 (June 1985), 2-20.
46. Illustration in Carl Dahlhaus, Nineteenth-Century Music, trans. J. Bradford Robinson (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1989), p. 303.
47. These pieces are recorded by Daniel Blumenthal (Marco Polo 8.223376) and deserve a modern reprint or edition. They are discussed in greater detail in Dorothy V. Hagan, Félicien David, 1810-1876: A Composer and a Cause (Syracuse, N.Y., 1985), pp. 57-65;
48. and in my Music, Musicians, and the Saint-Simonians (Chicago, 1986), pp. 185-87, 191, 205, 277.
49. (The French version of the latter book - translated by Malou and Philippe Haine - gives the original texts of all quotations from letters and documents: Les Saint-Simoniens et la musique [Liège, 1992].)
50. Further on Le Désert, its origins, music, and wildfire reception, see Hagan, David, pp. 67-90;
51. my Music, Musicians, pp. 190-95, 201-11, 276-77;
52. Jean-Pierre Bartoli, "La musique française et l'Orient: à propos du Désert de Félicien David," Revue internationale de musique française 6 (November 1981), 6, 28436;
53. and my "The French Symphony: David, Gounod, and Bizet to Saint-Saëns, Franck, and Their Followers," in The Nineteenth-Century Symphony, ed. D. Kern Holoman (New York, 1997), pp. 163-94, esp. 166-68.
54. Vladimir Vasilevich Stasov, Selected Essays on Music, trans. Florence Jonas (London, 1968), pp. 69, 72-73;
55. Strong on Music: The New York Music Scene in the Days of George Templeton Strong, 1836-1875, ed. Vera Brodsky Lawrence, vol. I (New York, 1988), pp. 364-65, 486-88;
56. Eric Jensen, "George Horatio Derby's 'Musical Review Extraordinary,' or, Félicien David in the New World," American Music 8 (1990), 350-58;
57. and Julian Budden, The Operas of Verdi, vol. III (rev. edn. Oxford, 1992), pp. 216-17.
58. The word "fantasia" is used in this way in the titles of numerous paintings of Arabs on horseback by Delacroix and others; this meaning was to remain the sole or primary one for the term in French dictionaries up to the mid-twentieth century.
59. The tenor of the first performances sang the melisma that ends the muezzin chant in microtones (as Berlioz and others testify), but David did not notate these nuances in the score (perhaps did not know how to?) - cf. Hagan, David, p. 79.
60. In Hagan's view, David's "Danse" "suggest[s]" specific "appropriate action[s]" of Arab dancing women, such as those described by the painter and traveler Eugène Fromentin (David, pp. 74-75).
61. The first page is reproduced and discussed in my "Breezes from the Orient, Airs from the Parisian Salon: Félicien David Now on Disc," Journal of the American Liszt Society 33 (January-June 1993), 44-49.
62. Théophile Gautier, Gautier on Dance, ed. and trans. Ivor Guest (London, 1986), pp. 39-50, 134-37.
63. Indeed, de Meyer had first published it as Machmudier: Air guerrier des turques. See R. Allen Lott, "A Berlioz Premiere in America: Leopold De Meyer and the Marche d'Isly," this journal 8 (1985), 226-30.
64. The song's title, No More Sea, refers to the Day of Judgment, when all things will end, even sorrow and death, earth and sea (Rev. 21:1-4). Derek B. Scott generously provided me with a photocopy. The piece bears the subtitle "Arab Air."
65. This tune is in fact still known to most Americans - adults and children alike - via mocking playground rhymes (including the quasi-absurd "don't wear pants" version, located "in the southern part of France"), pop-music numbers (e.g., "Criminal" by Fiona Apple), and cartoon soundtracks. Some information on the tune's origin and publishing history can be found in James J. Fuld, The Book of World-Famous Music (3rd rev. edn. New York, 1985), pp. 276-77.
66. On the myth that a star performer known as "Little Egypt" danced to the tune in 1892-93 (and for a new origin of the term "hootchie kootchie"), see Donna Carlton, Looking for Little Egypt (Bloomington, 1994), pp. 50-52, 88 (published score of the tune, 1895), and 91-93.
67. It can be heard, for example, in the selections with req (tambourine) on a recent CD rerelease of Egyptian music (Égypte: Taqâsim & Layali, Unesco Collection Auvidis D8038).
68. Of course, the preference for this particular rhythm by various composers seeking to evoke the Middle East may also have been influenced by its resemblance to a number of standard accompanimental rhythmic patterns in Western music (some in duple meter, others in triple), such as those often found in polonaises, boleros, and Italian operatic cabalettas (e.g., "Di quella pira," in Verdi's Il trovatore of 1853). It should also be allowed that these Southern and Eastern European rhythmic figures may themselves reflect some earlier contact with the Middle East.
69. "Tristesse de l'odalisque" is sung by Udo Reinemann on an Arion LP (ARN 38733) and by Ursula Mayer-Reinach on Gallo CD-605 (Music around the Mediterranean).
70. For a brief overview of Orientalist art and its parallels in music and for extensive bibliography, see my "Constructing the Oriental 'Other'," esp. pp. 263-65.
71. Hugh Macdonald, "9/8, Gmusic flat sign Major," this journal 11 (1988), 221-37.
72. Complete recording on a Capriccio CD (10 380).
73. Reyer's introductory "Notes" to the piano-vocal score of Le Sélam: symphonie orientale en quatre parties (Paris, [1850?], rpt. [Paris], n.d.).
74. Further on these and other French Biblical oratorios, see Frank Reinisch, Das französische Oratorium von 1840 bis 1870 (Regensburg, 1982), esp. pp. 272-73, 275-92, 312-24, 414-15.
75. James Parakilas, "The Soldier and the Exotic: Operatic Variations on a Theme of Racial Encounter," Opera Quarterly 10 (1994), no. 2: 33-56 and no. 3: 43-69; citation here from pt. 1, p. 33.
76. Hagan, Félicien David, pp. 170-74.
77. Winton Dean repeatedly notes (or reports contemporary reviews as noting) the influence of Le Désert on this and other Bizet works (e.g., the florid oboe solo that opens the slow movement of the Symphony in C): Bizet (3rd rev. edn. London, 1975), pp. 23, 25, 50-51, 134-35, 163-64, 170-73, 198, 248.
78. The chords also are unmistakably reminiscent of those that lead from the "Muezzin Chant" to the "March of the Caravan" in David's Désert.
79. Richard Taruskin, "'Entoiling the Falconet': Russian Musical Orientalism in Context," in Bellman, Exotic, pp. 194-217, 342-43; esp. p. 196;
80. also (without the subtitle) in Taruskin, Defining Russia Musically: Historical and Hermeneutical Essays (Princeton, 1997), pp. 152-85, esp. 154. Tchaikovsky and Mussorgsky likewise composed works for this occasion.
81. "Suppliant, mais avec inquiétude et un peu d'agitation" (five measures after rehearsal letters HH).
82. It included the prayer quatrain and other crucial passages; see Angelus Seipt, César Francks symphonische Dichtungen (Regensburg, 1981), pp. 178-79.
83. Shiloah, Music, 131-36. Present-day nūba ensembles may also make briefer use of "neighboring" modes, but a single mode remains primary, as in the Moroccan performance of a nūba in mode 8 (Hijazi al-Kabir) on Ocora C559016 (Maroc: Musique classique andalou-maghrébine).
84. Not to speak of more basic Middle Eastern creative procedures not easily available to a Western composer of the 1880s: these would have included, most prominently, (1) a singer's or 'ud player's improvising - by turns reflectively, passionately, ecstatically - on a traditional melody or on the tones of the melodic mode; and (2) heterophonic layering arising more or less spontaneously among the various musicians.
85. Parakilas, "The Soldier," pt. 1.
86. Meyerbeer's Il crociato in Egitto comes closest (it involves a European who has "gone native" and even produced a child with a native woman), but it is set back in the days of the Crusaders.
87. Compare Ragnhild Gulrich, Exotismus in der Oper und seine szenische Realisation (1850-1910) unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Münchener Oper (Anif/Salzburg, 1993), pp. 304-08.
88. See my "Constructing," pp. 271-75.
89. Rodney Milnes, "Hérodiade," in New Grove Dictionary of Opera, ed. Stanley Sadie (London, 1994), vol. 2, p. 704.
90. Aspects of these traditions are explored in Die "Couleur locale" in der Oper des 19. Jahrhunderts, ed. Heinz Becker (Regensburg, 1976).
91. Like Bizet's Pêcheurs, L'Africaine underwent a change in locale. The last two acts were, during much of the compositional process, set in western Africa, along the Niger River, a region of intense colonization at the time by the French and British, but this was changed to India and, finally, perhaps as a compromise, a highly imaginary Madagascar. References remain in the libretto to Vishnu and other Indian gods.
92. Julian Budden lists the many Moorish/Turkish features of this "Danza degli piccoli schiavi mori" (The Operas of Verdi, III, 190, 216; cf. 226-27). I say "anachronistically" because Arabs did not move in large numbers into Egypt and "the Maghreb" until the sixth century A.D.
93. Such a "sheet of sound" was often used to portray the vibrating stasis of a natural scene; see Dahlhaus, Nineteenth-Century Music, pp. 306-08.
94. Gabriele Brandstetter, "Erodiade," in Pipers Enzyklopädie des Musiktheaters, IV, 739-42 (quotation, p. 740).
95. Joseph Kerman, Opera as Drama (new and rev. edn. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1988), pp. 206-07.
96. Phoenicians, Babylonians, etc., in Hérodiade, act IV; Persians in Le roi de Lahore (1877), beginning of act II, and in Mussorgsky, Khovanshchina (1872-80), act IV. On the varieties of national dance earlier in the century, and their deployment in theatrical works, see Lisa C. Arkin and Marian Smith, "National Dance in the Romantic Ballet," in Rethinking the Sylph: New Perspectives on the Romantic Ballet, ed. Lynn Garafola (Hanover, N.H., 1997), pp. 11-68.
97. This aspect is sensitively explored in Budden, Operas of Verdi, III, 203, 206 (the cross-reference should surely read "ex. 96"), 209, 236-37, 242.
98. This finally sympathetic treatment of both women is related to the evenhandedness of the politics in Aida (regarding which see my "Reflections," pp. 58-61).
99. See my "Constructing," pp. 289-98.
100. Kundry, the chief seductress in this scene, is specifically dressed "in somewhat transparent, fantastical garments - approximately of Arabian style." Further on Kundry's and Klingsor's desire for Parsifa), see Marc A. Weiner, Richard Wagner and the Anti-Semitic Imagination (Lincoln, Neb., 1995), pp. 225-59 (stage direction cited on p. 246, with photo from first production, 1882), and n. 87 below.
101. Karin van Nieuwkerk, "A Trade like Any Other": Female Singers and Dancers in Egypt (Austin, Tx., 1995), pp. 1-4, 21-39.
102. See the various essays, not least Terry Castle's and Patricia Juliana Smith's, in En travesti: Women, Gender Subversion, Opera, ed. Corinne E. Blackmer and Patricia Juliana Smith (New York, 1995).
103. Joseph Allen Boone, "Vacation Cruises; or, the Homoerotics of Orientalism," Publications of the Modern Language Association 110 (January 1995), 89-107.
104. On the Middle East as "the region of the world with the most visible and diverse homosexualities," see Islamic Homosexualities: Culture, History, and Literature, ed. Stephen O. Murray and Will Roscoe (New York, 1997), esp. pp. 3-13 (editors' intro.; quote from p. 6), 174-96, 204-21, and 302-19.
105. On Saint-Saëns, see Philip Brett, "Eros and Orientalism in Britten's Operas," in Queering the Pitch: The New Gay and Lesbian Musicology, ed. Philip Brett, Elizabeth Wood, and Gary C. Thomas (New York, 1994), p. 252, n. 3.
106. On Szymanowski, see Encyclopedia of Homosexuality, ed. Wayne R. Dynes, 2 vols. (New York, 1990), s.v., "Opera" and "Szymanowski."
107. Boone examines several cases in detail, including one such Moroccan "boy" who later wrote his own story of his long-term involvement with a Western man ("Vacation Cruises," pp. 102-03).
108. In Massenet's Cléopâtre, this category of désirés includes Marc Antoine (the leading male role), the aforementioned male slaves, and a male dancer in a tavern whom the leading lady ogles lengthily.
109. One powerful antecedent is the scene, in Mozart's Zauberflöte, of the Three Ladies squabbling over the handsome, sleeping Tamino. The helpless or vacillating hero does of course have other antecedents (Metastasio, Scribe/Meyerbeer, Wagner's Tannhäuser) that show him caught between more than one (female) lover. Compare Anselm Gerhard, Die Verstädterung der Oper: Paris und das Musiktheater des 19. Jahrhunderts (Stuttgart, 1992), 93-96.
110. On Glinka's dreamy Ratmir (a mezzo "pants" role, in any case), see Taruskin, "'Entoiling'," in Bellman, Exotic, pp. 208-12
111. (or in Taruskin, Defining, pp. 172-76).
112. On the femme fatale as a stand-in for the gay opera lover, see Mitchell Morris, "On Gaily Reading Music," repercussions 1 (1992), 48-64
113. and Wayne Koestenbaum, The Queen's Throat: Opera, Homosexuality, and the Mystery of Desire (New York, 1993).
114. Possible subject positions regarding Salome have been much debated: see Carolyn Abbate, "Opera; or, the Envoicing of Women," in Musicology and Difference: Gender and Sexuality in Musical Scholarship, ed. Ruth A. Solie (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1993), pp. 225-58
115. and Lawrence Kramer, "Culture and Musical Hermeneutics: The Salome Complex," Cambridge Opera Journal 2 (1990), 269-94.
116. Some complexities of gender, gaze, and "identification" in opera, generally, are explored in my "What Are These Women Doing in Opera?" in En travesti, pp. 64-66, 74-76, 83-84, 87-89.
117. The seductress may also be an agent for a desiring male; see Thomas Grey's suggestions about the Kundry/Klingsor/Parsifal triangle, in his review of Weiner's aforementioned Richard Wagner, in Cambridge Opera Journal 8 (1996), 185-97, esp. 193-95.
118. Heinrich Schenker, Counterpoint: A Translation of "Kontrapunkt, " ed. John Rothgeb and trans. John Rothgeb and Jürgen Thym, 2 vols. (New York, 1981), I, 28-29.
119. Bongie, Exotic Memories, pp. 72, 17, cf. 90.
120. Saint-Saëns, "L'Étoile" (1907).
121. "Beethoven in the Palace," ca. 1910, is reproduced in Esin Atil, Charles Newton, and Sarah Searight, Voyages and Visions: Nineteenth-Century European Images of the Middle East from the Victoria and Albert Museum (Washington, D. C., 1995), p. 53. The family members are clothed in Western manner, as befits the first Middle Eastern country to establish a secular government; the prince himself listens reflectively, in Western-style military uniform.
122. On octatonicism and its meanings, see Richard Taruskin, Stravinsky and the Russian Traditions: A Biography of the Works through "Mavra," 2 vols. (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1996), I, 255-306.
123. Simon Trezise, Debussy: "La mer" (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 24, 46, 48, 56.
124. Lawrence Kramer carries this thought further in "Consuming the Exotic: Ravel's Daphnis and Chloe," in his Classical Music and Postmodern Knowledge (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1995), pp. 201-25.
125. Strauss actually felt so comfortable with the conventions of exotic-oriental style that he left writing this dance until the very end. See Norman Del Mar, Richard Strauss: A Critical Commentary on His Life and Works, 3 vols. (3rd rev. edn. Ithaca, N.Y., 1986), I, 244-45, 267-71.
126. Cited in Del Mar, Strauss, I, 243.
127. Contemporary observer Michel Corday, cited in Kramer, "Consuming the Exotic," p. 213.
128. Motion Picture Moods for Piano and Organ: A Rapid-Reference Collection of Selected Pieces Adapted to Fifty-Two Moods and Situations, ed. Emo Rapée (New York, 1924).
129. The result sounds rather like stereotypical American Indian music. Compare Michael V. Pisani, "'I'm an Indian Too': Creating Native American Identities in Nineteenth- and Early-Twentieth-Century Music," in Bellman, Exotic, pp. 218-57, 343-47.
130. These and other chansons arabes, chansons nègres, songs relating to the French Foreign Legion (e.g., by Piaf), and of course "Petite Tonkinoise" and other bits of faux-Asiatica are available on a two-CD collection (on the French EPM label): Chansons coloniales et exotiques 1906-1942, EPM983312/ADE798 (1995).
131. Sullivan's "Arabian Love Song" (to a poem by Shelley), recently recorded on Pearl SHE CD9636.
132. This rhythm is used throughout "Sahara" (sung by Nitta-Jo, 1935, with Orchestre M. Cariven), disc 1, track 1, on Chansons coloniales.
133. On Chansons coloniales, respectively: disc 1, track 7 ("Abd El-Kader," 1930); and disc 1, track 2 ("Nuits d'outremer," 1932).
134. Pierre Boulez, Orientations: Collected Writings, ed. Jean-Jacques Nattiez, trans. Martin Cooper (Cambridge, Mass., 1986), p. 341.
135. The interpretation proposed in the remainder of this paragraph is offered in the spirit of Marc A. Weiner's recent conclusion, regarding Wagner's works. The cultural impact today of these "documents of a different cultural vocabulary with racist [e.g., anti-Semitic] and exclusionary implications," he notes, is hard to evaluate precisely because certain aspects of that cultural vocabulary - of late-nineteenth-century "representations of commonality and difference" - have become dead metaphors, thanks to various shifts in cultural values, whereas others (e.g., "the enigmatically seductive and yet threatening bodily presence of all that is deemed exotic") remain functional and alive (Weiner, Wagner, pp. 350-52).