Is China Abolishing the hukuo system?

China Quarterly

Volumn , Issue 195, 2008, Pages 582-606

  Chan, Kam Wing ^a   Buckingham, Will ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACCESSIBILITY; GOVERNANCE APPROACH; IMMIGRATION POLICY; INSTITUTIONAL REFORM; INTERNAL MIGRATION; LOCAL GOVERNMENT; RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION;

ASIA; CHINA; EURASIA; FAR EAST;

EID: 51849157383     PISSN: 03057410     EISSN: 14682648     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0305741008000787     Document Type: Article

References (155)

1. For example, Kam Wing Chan, Ta Liu and Yunyan Yang, "Hukou and non-hukou migration: Comparisons and contrasts," International Journal of Population Geography, Vol. 5, No. 6 (1999) pp. 425-48.
2. Youqin Huang and William Clark, "Housing tenure choice in transitional urban China: A multi-level analysis," Urban Studies, Vol. 39, No. 1 (2002), pp. 7-32.
3. Zhiqiang Liu, "Institution and inequality: The hukou system in China," Journal of Comparative Economics, No. 33 (2003), pp. 133-57.
4. Dorothy Solinger, Contesting Citizenship in Urban China: Peasant Migrants, the State, and the Logic of the Market (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999). It should also be noted that a few previous state-provided privileges are no longer granted to urban residents. In some cities or city districts, migrant children can go to urban public schools, but most of them have to pay school fees several times higher than local residents.
5. A telling hypothetical example of what a rural migrant worker will typically face is given in Fei-Ling Wang, Organizing through Division and Exclusion: China's Hukou System (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005).
6. Kam Wing Chan, "The fundamentals of China's urbanization and policy," The China Review, forthcoming.
7. Peter Alexander and Anita Chan, "Does China have an apartheid pass system?" Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 30, No. 4 (2004), pp. 609-29
8. Tim Luard, "China rethinks peasant 'apartheid'," BBC News, 10 November 2005, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/ 4424944.stm, accessed 3 April 2006
9. Kam Wing Chan, Cities with Invisible Walls: Reinterpreting Urbanization in Post-1949 China (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press 1994).
10. See Fei-Ling Wang, Organizing through Division and Exclusion, p. xiii.
11. In addition, it has been a source of corruption for local officials approving hukou conversions. Yu Depeng, Chengxiang shehui: Cong geli zouxiang kaifang (Urban-Rural Society: From Segmentation to Openness) (Jinan: Shandong renmin chubanshe, 2002), pp. 56-57.
12. Li Yi, Structure and Evolution of Chinese Social Stratification (University Press of America, 2005).
13. Fei-Ling Wang, Organizing through Division and Exclusion, tables 5.7 and 5.8.
14. John Knight and Lina Song, The Rural-Urban Divide: Economic Disparities and Interactions in China (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).
15. Xiaogang Wu and Donald J. Treiman, "The household registration system and social stratification in China: 1955-1996," Demography, Vol. 41, No. 2 (2004) pp. 363-84.
16. Dorothy Solinger, "The creation of a new underclass in China and its implications," Environment & Urbanization, Vol. 18, No. 1 (2006), pp. 177-93.
17. South China Morning Post (International Weekly), 5 February 1994, p. 7.
18. Examples: Ming Pao (Hong Kong) carried an article on 21 June 1996 with a similar title: "Xiayue qi quxiao chengxiang huji chabie" ("Urban-rural huji differences to be eliminated next month"). More recently, similar articles appeared in Singtao Daily (Hong Kong-based, Overseas Edition) on 3 July 2003
19. and 8 March 2005, in South China Morning Post on 13 December 2002 and 12 February 2003,
20. and in The New York Times, "China eases rules binding people to birth regions," 23 October 2001.
21. Examples: "Chengshi tuidao huji weiqiang 2003 zhongguo ren xiangyou gengduo qianyi ziyou" ("Cities tear down hukou barriers in 2003: Chinese to enjoy more migration freedom") 19 December 2003 at http://china.com.cn/city/zhuanti/hjgaige/txt/2003-12/19/ content_5464858.htm, accessed 12 December 2006.
22. "Woguo quanmian tu jin huji zhidu gaige renkou heli liudong bu ke zudang" ("China pushes comprehensive reform of the hukou system. Rational flows of population cannot be resisted"), 14 August 2002, at http://china.com.cn/city/zhuanti/hjgaige/txt/2002-08/14/ content_5188092.htm, accessed 12 December 2006. While those titles may be upbeat, the texts are usually less sanguine and often contain useful facts, if not interpretations.
23. "Quanguo shiyige shengshi kaishi tongyi chengxiang hu kou" ("Eleven provinces/municipalities to begin unified hukou system," Beijing wanbao, 28 October 2005, http://www.china.org.cn/Chinese/kuaixun/1012501.htm, accessed 16 November 2005.
24. Fazhi ribao, 26 October 2006, p. 2.
25. China Daily, 2 November 2005, p. 3.
26. "Rural migrants to get more rights in China," International Herald Tribune, 2 November 2005.
27. Joseph Kahn, "China to drop urbanite-peasant legal differences," The New York Times, 3 November 2005.
28. A few local newspapers in North America also carried the same story: "A present to peasants: Distinctions will be gone," Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 2 November 2005, p. A2
29. "Migration in China spawns urban class of poor outsiders," The Vancouver Sun, 7 November 2005, p. D3.
30. Luard, "China rethinks peasant 'apartheid'."
31. South China Morning Post, 27 October 2005.
32. Similar articles also appeared later in other Hong Kong-based papers: see "Gongmin ziyou qianyi kewang yuanmang" ("The dream of free migration for citizens hopes to be filled"), Sing Tao Daily, 31 December, 2005, p. A12.
33. Luard, "China rethinks peasant 'apartheid'."
34. For example, Andrew Nathan has remarked that the Chinese government's announcement of the abolition of the household registrations system was one of the major things that it has done right. See his review of M. Pei's book in Foreign Affairs, July/August 2006 accessed through http://www.foreignaffairs.org, 17 November 2006.
35. Chen Jinyong (Kam Wing Chan), "Zhongguo huji zhidu gaige he chengxiang renkon qianyi" ("Chinese hukou reforms and rural-urban migration), Zhongguo laodong jingji (China Labor Economics), No. 1 (2004), pp. 108-24.
36. Fei-Ling Wang, "Reformed migration control and new targeted people: China's hukou system in the 2000s," The China Quarterly, No. 177 (2004), p. 129.
37. His newer publication in 2005 (Organizing Through Division and Exclusion) holds the same view. Zhao and Li also question the interpretations put forward in The New York Times (Zhao Litao and Li Jianying, "China transforming its hukou system: Path dependence and local interests," EAI Working Paper, No. 128, National University of Singapore, 2006, p. 1).
38. See Congressional-Executive Commission on China, "China's household registration system: Sustained reform needed to protect China's rural migrants," 7 October 2005 at http://www.cecc.gov/pages/news/ hukou.pdf. Accessed 25 January 2007.
39. Examples are: "Quxiao huji xianzhi, tian ta bu xialai" ("The sky will not fall by abolishing the huji system"), Zhongguo quinian bao (China Youth Dail), 2 November 2005, and "Huji qishi qineng jiufu" ("Huji discrimination cannot last long"), Guoji jinrong bao (International Finance Post), 4 November 2005, both accessed through search at http://isearch.china.com.cn on 16 November 2005.
40. A recent and relatively accurate report of migrants' plight in Shenzhen is in Howard French, "Chinese success story chokes on its own growth," The New York Times, 19 December 2006, at httw://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/19/world/asia/I9shenzhen.html?r- I&oref-slogin, accessed 23 December 2006.
41. Similar latest finding of no major change in this resnect are reported in Zhongwei Zhao and Fei Guo (eds.), Transition and Challenge : China's Population at the Begining of the 21st Century (Oxford: Oxford Universty Press, 2007), chs. 12 and 13.
42. Nanfang dushibao, 2 November 2005, http://www.china.org.cn/, accessed 5 November 2005.
43. Tiejun Cheng and Mark Selden, "The origin and social consequences of China's hukou system," The China Quarterly, No. 139 (1994), pp. 644-68
44. Solinger, Contesting Citizenship in Urban China;
45. Kam Wing Chan and Li Zhang, "The hukou system and rural-urban migration: Processes and changes," The China Quarterly, No. 160 (1999) pp. 818-55
46. Hein Mallee, "Migration, hukou and resistance in reform China," in Elizabeth Perry and Mark Selden (eds.), Chinese Society: Change, Conflict and Resistance (New York: Routledge, 2000), pp. 83-101
47. Yu Depeng, Urban-Rural Society;
48. Fei-Ling Wang, Organizing through Division and Exclusion.
49. This is done through reading more than 300 news articles collected in the last few years, including many retrieved from systematic title searches using Chinese Academic Journals and Core Chinese Newspapers databases run by East View and keyword searches using Baidu.com.
50. Michael Dutton, Policing and Punishment in China: From Patriarchy to "the People" (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992)
51. Mervyn Matthews, The Passport Society: Controlling Movement in Russia and the USSR (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993)
52. Kam Wing Chan, Cities with Invisible Walls, ch. 3.
53. Justin Yifu Lin, Fang Cai and Zhou Li, The China Miracle: Development Strategy and Economic Reform (Hong Kong : Chinese University Press, 1996).
54. The latter is also often called chengzhen hukou, literally meaning "urban" hukou (see further below). In China, the term "agricultural/non-agricultural population" often refers to the hukou type, not necessarily the population dependent on agriculture or not. For a detailed study of this, see Kam Wing Chan and Kai Yuen Tsui, "'Agricultural' and 'non-agricultural' population statistics of the People's Republic of China: Definitions, findings and comparisons," University of Hong Kong, Department of Geography and Geology, Occasional Paper, No.1 (1992) p. 41.
55. Cheng and Selden, "The origin and social consequences of China's hukou policy";
56. Kam Wing Chan, Cities with Invisible Walls;
57. Fei-Ling Wang, Organizing through Division and Exclusion.
58. Yu Depeng, Urban-Rural Society.
59. Chan and Zhang, "The hukou system and rural-urban migration," pp. 818-55.
60. Starting from the mid-1980s, in order to deal with the increase in internal migration, a few temporary (non-local) hukou categories have been officially used, the most common of which is the zanzhu hukou ("temporary hukou"). See Dorothy Solinger, "'Temporary residence certificate' regulations in Wuhan, May 1983," The China Quarterly, No. 101 (1985), pp. 98-103.
61. Chan and Zhang, "The hukou system and rural-urban migration."
62. In recent years, many outlying counties under the administration of the city have been converted to "districts." In some large cities, such as Guangzhou and Wuhan, all former (rural) counties under their administration have now been converted to districts or county-level cities.
63. This is another topic with a vast body of literature; readers are referred to the voluminous literature, notably Kam Wing Chan and Xueqiang Xu, "Urban population growth and urbanization in China since 1949: Reconstructing a baseline," The China Quarterly, No. 104 (1985), pp. 583-613\
64. Kam Wing Chan and Kai Yuen Tsui, "Agricultural' and 'non-agricultural' population statistics of the People's Republic of China: Definitions, findings and comparisons," University of Hong Kong, Department of Geography and Geology, Occasional Paper, No. 1 (1992)
65. Kam Wing Chan and Ying Hu, "Urbanization in China in the 1990s: New definition, different series, and revised trends," The China Review Vol. 3, No. 2 (2003), pp. 49-71
66. Yixing Zhou and Laurence Ma, "China's urban population statistics: A critical evaluation," Eurasian Geography and Economics, Vol. 46, No. 4 (2005), pp. 272-89.
67. An updated comprehensive review is in Kam Wing Chan, "Misconceptions and complexities in the study of China's cities: Definitions, statistics, and implications," Eurasian Geography and Economics, Vol. 48, No. 4 (2007), pp. 383-412.
68. Kam Wing Chan, "Internal labor migration in China: Trends, geographical distribution and policies," Proceedings of United Nations Expert Group Meeting on Population Distribution, Urbanization, Internal Migration and Development, ESA/P/WP206, United Nations (2008), pp. 93-122.
69. Chan and Zhang, "The hukou system and rural-urban migration."
70. See details in ibid.;
71. Fei-Ling Wang, "Reformed migration control and new targeted people."
72. Yu Depeng, Urban-Rural Society, pp. 54-57.
73. State Council directives, August 1992 and July 1998. See Chan and Zhang, "The hukou system and rural-urban migration."
74. See ibid.; Fei-Ling Wang, Organizing through Division and Exclusion; Solinger, Contesting Citizenship in Urban China.
75. This is well documented in Fei-Ling Wang, Organizing through Division and Exclusion, ch. 7.
76. Yan Zhijing and Yu Qihong, Zhongguo huji zhidu gaige (Reform of the Chinese Household Registration System) (Beijing: Zhongguo zhengfa daxue chubanshe, 1996).
77. "Guowuyuan guanyu huji zhidu gaige de jueding" ("Decisions of the State Council concerning reform of the hukou system"), see Yu Depeng, Urban-Rural Society, p. 382.
78. Yan and Yu, Reform, also has a detailed report of the deliberations.
79. The then Premier, Li Peng, indicated in his diary that the State Council had planned to issue a policy document on this in 1995 and carried out pilot programmes in some provinces. See Shichang yu tiaokong: Li Peng jingji riji (Market and Management: Li Peng's Diary of the Economy), Vol. 2 (Beijing: Xinhua chubanshe and Zhongguo dianli chubanshe, 2007), p. 1083.
80. Yu Depeng, Urban-Rural Society points out that there are many, perhaps irreconcilable, internal contradictions in that proposal.
81. See, for example, this directive issued in 1998 by the State Council: "Guanyu jiejue dangqian hukou guanli gongzuo zhong jige techu wenti de yijian" ("Opinions on addressing several critical questions of current hukou management work"), http://www.calaw.cn/include/shownews.asp?newsid=1304, retrieved 19 December 2006. More sources are in Chan and Zhang, "The hukou system and rural-urban migration."
82. Hein Mallee, "China's household registration system under reform," Development and Change, No. 26 (1995), pp. 1-29.
83. Linda Wong and Huen Wai-Po, "Reforming the household registration system: A preliminary glimpse of the blue chop household registration system in Shanghai and Shenzhen," International Migration Review, Vol.32, No.4(1998), pp.974-94.
84. See also "Quanguo ge dachengshilanyin hukou zhengce jianjie" ("An introduction to the blue-stamp hukou in large cities in China"), 26 October 1999, at http://dailynews.sina.com.cn/china/1999-10-26/25840.html, accessed 21 December 2006.
85. Li Ruojian, "Difang wailai renkou guanli fagui chubu tantao" ("A preliminary discussion of the local management regulations of outside population") Renkou yu jingji, No. 5 (2001), pp. 17-22.
86. Wang Feng, "The breakdown of the Great Wall: Recent changes in the household registration system in China," in T. Scharping (ed.), Floating Population and Migration in China: The Impact of Economic Reforms (Hamburg : Institut für Asienkunde, 1997), p. 159.
87. See Ministry of Public Security, Guanyu qiyong xinde changzhu renkou dengjibiao he jumin hukouben youguan shixiang de tongzhi (Circular on Some Issues Relating to Usage of New Form of Regular Population Registration and Hukou Book), issued on 19 December 1995. Also, Sing Tao Daily, 8 July 1997, p. A7.
88. The latest official MPS publication on annual population statistics has now made explicit that its agricultural and non-agricultural hukou population statistics for eight provinces such as Hebei and Jiangsu are simply based on administrative rural and urban population. See MPS, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo quanguo fen xianshi renkou tongji ziliao 2005 nian (Statistical Materials on County and City Population for the People's Republic of China 2005) (Beijing: Qunzhong chubanshe 2006). The latest Beijing statistical yearbook, Beijing tongji nianjian 2006 still includes population data for 2004 and 2005 classified by agricultural and non-agricultural hukou, at http://chinadataonline.org, accessed 21 August, 2007.
89. "Shiyige shengshi kaishi tongyi chengxiang hukou, Beijing zan wei lieru qizhong" ("Eleven provinces to begin unified urban-rural hukou, Beijing tentatively excluded "), 28 October 2005, www.china.org.cn/chinese/kuaixun/1012501.htm, accessed 16 November 2005.
90. More details are in Fei-Ling Wang, Organizing through Division and Exclusion, ch. 7.
91. Gu Chaolin and Kam Wing Chan, "Dachengshi huji yinggai jubu fangkai" ("The hukou in large cities should be gradually open"), Chengshi fazhan yanjiu (Urban Development Research), No. 6 (2001), p. 31.
92. "Shangyebu guanyu qiyong xinde 'shizhen jumin liangshi gongying zhuanyi zhengming' ji youguan shiyong guiding de tongzhi" ("Memo by Ministry of Commerce on the use of new 'urban residents food supply transfer' certificate and its regulations"), http://www.chinalawlib.com/20486838.html, accessed 14 December 2006.
93. "Eleven provinces to begin unified urban-rural hukou, Beijing tentatively excluded." Li also announced that the leading committee for hukou reform in tandem with the Ministry of Public Security was continuing to examine methods to lower migration restrictions to large and medium cities.
94. The latest update by the MPS, released on 30 March 2007, repeated the same points and included a list of 12 provincial-level units. See "12 shengshi quxiao nongye he fenongye eryuan hukou huafen" ("12 provinces abolish agricultural and non-agricultural hukou classification"), at http://news.qq.com/a/20070330/
95. Kam Wing Chan, Recent migration in China: Patterns, trends, and policies," Asian Perspectives, Vol. 25, No. 4 (2001), pp. 127-55.
96. A useful source of information is Chengshi gongzuo juzhu guiding (Employment and Residence Regulations in Cities) (Beijing: Zhongguo fazhi chubanshe, 2003).
97. Details are in "Shenzhen shi huji qianru ruogan guiding (shixing " ("Shenzhen hukou in-migration regulations (provisional ") (2005) http://law.chinalawinfo.com/newlaw2002/slc/slc.asp?db= lar&gid=16842419, accessed 20 December 2006.
98. This would qualify under the special categories of "hardships" and "sacrifices" (doing dangerous work for the state) in the past.
99. Cai Fang and Wang Meiyan, "Huji zhidu gaige: Kaiqi chengshi jingjide yuantou huoshui" ("Household registration system reform: Opening up the source for urban economy"), Guihuashi (Planners), Vol. 18, No. 10 (2002), pp. 5-7.
100. See ibid.; Fei-Ling Wang, Organizing through Division and Exclusion, table 5.7.
101. Yang Yunyan, Cai Fang, Kam Wing Chan and Wang Dewen, Chengshi jiuye yu laodongli shichang zhuanxing (Urban Employment and Transition of Labour Market) (Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 2004), p. 274.
102. Ministry of Public Security, Xiaochengzhen huji guanli zhidu gaige shidian fang'an (Pilot Schemes for Reforming Hukou Administration System in Small Towns), proposed on 20 May 1997 and approved by the State Council on 11 June 1997.
103. See also Chan and Zhang, "The hukou system and rural-urban migration," pp. 840-41.
104. Tian Bingxing, Zhongguo diyi zhengjian (China's No.1 Document) (Huizhou: Guangdong renmin chubanshe, 2005).
105. Fei-Ling Wang, Organizing through Division and Exclusion.
106. See "Zhongguo huji gaige tiaojian yijing jiben chengshu" ("Conditions for huji reforms are ripe in China"), at http://china.com/policy/txt/2007-05/09/content_8222503_2.htm, 9 May 2007, accessed on 9 May 2007. Using the example of Nanjing, the population holding a Nanjing agricultural hukou and those holding a Nanjing non-agricultural hukou are now merged into one category called "population holding Nanjing jumin hukou."
107. After the "unification," some former agricultural residents are still treated as second-class citizens. See comments in ibid.
108. See "Beijing jinqi chuxian diwuge wu nongye huji renkou chengqu" ("A fifth district without agricultural hukou now emerges in Beijing"), at http://news.xinhuanet.com/newscenter/ 2002-12/01/content_645903.htm, accessed 9 December 2006.
109. See Gregory Guldin, "Desakotas and beyond: Urbanization in southern China," in Guldin (ed.), Farewell to Peasant China (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1997), pp. 47-67.
110. Unlike in the pre-reform era, peasants with land expropriated by the state at present are not automatically entitled to a conversion to a non-agricultural/urban hukou.
111. Albert Keidel, "China's social unrest: The story behind the stories," Policy Brief, Carnegie Endowment, No. 46 (2006). Chen Yingfang, Zhengdi yu jiaoqu nongcun de chengshihua - Shanghaishi de tiaocha (Land Expropriation and Urbanization of Villages in the Suburban Region - A Survey of Shanghai Municipality), (Shanghai: Wenhui chubanshe, 2003).
112. Examples of these highly valued local agricultural hukou are found in Dongguan, Guangdong: See "Guangzhou Humen xixianshi: nongye hukou techixiang" ("News from Humen, Guangdong: Agricultural hukou is hot") at http://dailynews.sina.com.cn/c/202530.html, 8 March 2001, accessed 20 December 2006.
113. Personal communication with Philip O'Keefe of the World Bank, who is involved in studying di bao in China. Also Phillip O'Keefe, "Social assistance in China: An evolving system," unpublished paper, delivered at a conference at Australian National University, Canberra, Australia, 27 August 2004.
114. Rong Xihong, "Huji zhidu gaige dui youfu gongzuo de yingxiang ji duice" ("The implications and policies of hukou reform for veteran work"), at http://www.gdmz.gov.cn/luntan/2006/ 0303_7.htm, accessed 14 December 2006.
115. See "Zhongguo 28 ge shengqu shi zhiding gongbu le xin de nongcun wubao gongyang biaozhun" ("China's 28 provincial capitals announce formulations to standardize the five guarantees for the surrounding countryside"), 25 January 2007, at http://china.com.cn/economic/txt/2007-01/23/content_7701389.htm, accessed 29 January 2007.
116. Also "Guangdong tiaogao chengxiang dibao biaozhun yao zai qunian jichu shang ti gao 10 yuan" ("Guangdong adjusts last year's standard for rural and urban minimum living subsidy by 10 yuan"), 14 November 2006, at http://china.com.cn/city/txt/2006-11/14/ content_7354709.htm, accessed 29 January 2007.
117. Su Hong and Kam Wing Chan, "Tudi zhengyong yu defang zhengfu de xingwei" ("Land expropriation and local government behaviour"), Hong Kong Baptist University, The Centre for China Urban and Regional Studies, Occasional Paper No. 58 (2005).
118. See an analysis by Dang Guoying, a scholar at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, in "'Cungaiju' buneng yi xisheng nongmin liyi wei daijia" ("'Converting villages to neighbourhoods' cannot be done at the costs of peasants' interests"), 4 March 2008 at http//:ePaper.nddaily.com/A/html/2008-03/04/content_399397.htm, accessed 22 April 2008.
119. See Sing Tao Daily, 23 June 2003, p. A9. Details of this case are also in Fei-Ling Wang, Organizing through Division and Exclusion, p. 191.
120. CCTV.com, "Jinnian bu zai chou qian gongzi" ("No wage arrears worries this year"), bhttp://www.cctv.com/agriculture/ special/C11468/01/, accessed 29 January 2007.
121. "Pan Shengzhou: Jixu ba tuo qian nongmin gong zi wenti jiejue hao" ("Pan Shengzhou: Continuing to solve the wage arrears problems of rural migrant labour"), 10 November 2005 at http://column.bokee.com/99849.html, accessed 29 January 2007.
122. "Guowuyuan guanyu jichu jiaoyu gaige yu fazhan de jueding" ("State Council's decisions on reforms and development of basic education"), 29 May 2001, at http://www.moe.edu.cn/edoas/website18/ info3313.htm, accessed 25 August 2007.
123. See, for example, Xinhua News, 20 December 2004 about Beijing's migrant schools, at http://www.china.org.cn/english/culture/115453.htm, accessed 7 January 2005. The figures cited are reported by an organization of migrants' schools in Beijing: See "Beijing daguimo qudi zhenggai mingong zidi xuexiao" ("Beijing launches a large-scale campaign to close down migrants' schools"), Xinjing bao (New Beijing Post), 28 August 2006, at http://news.xinhuanet.com/edu/2006-08/28/content_5015898.htm, accessed 18 August 2007.
124. "Beijing closes schools for migrant children in pre-Olympic clean-up," 26 September 2006, http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/09/26/china14263.htm, accessed 26 January 2007.
125. Zai Liang, "Internal migration: Policy changes, recent trends, and new challenges," in Zhao and Guo, Transition and Challenge, p. 208.
126. "Shanghai school for migrants shut down," ABC News International, 11 January 2007, http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory?id=2781935, accessed 12 January 2007.
127. National Bureau of Statistics, "Nongmingong shenghuo zhiliang diaocha zhiyi: Laodong jiuye he shehui baozhang" ("Quality of life survey of rural migrant labour 1: Employment and social security"), http://www.cpirc.org.cn/tjsj/tjsj_cy_detail.asp?id= 7485, accessed 21 August 2007.
128. Du Yang and Gao Wenshu, "Zhongguo li yiyuan shehui baozhang tixi you duoyuan" ("How far away is China from an integrated social security system"), Zhongguo laodong jingjixue (China Labour Economics), Vol. 2, No. 2 (2007), pp. 45-59.
129. "2006 niandu laodong he shehui baozhang shiye fazhan tongji gongbao" ("The 2006 report of development and statistics of labour and social security"), at http://www.molss.gov.cn/gb/news/ 2007-05/18/content_178167.htm, accessed 14 August 2007.
130. See Lu Haiyuan, Zoujing chengshi: Nongmingong de shehui baozhang (Enter the City: Social Security for Rural Migrant Labour) (Beijing: Jingji chubanshe, 2004).
131. Sing Tao Daily, 4 November, 2005. Previously, 80% of the new civil servant positions in the central government required a Beijing hukou, see Sing Tao Daily, 3 November, 2004, p. A15.
132. See http://www.china.com/cn/chinese/news/1167155.htm, accessed 9 January 2007.
133. See Joseph Kahn and David Barboza "As unrest rises, China broadens workers' rights," The New York Times, 30 June 2007.
134. "Woguo lifa jiadadui laodongzhe baohude lidu tixian yiren weiben" ("China has become more people-oriented by issuing laws to strengthen the protection of labour workers"), 25 August 2007, http://china.com.cn/policy/txt/2007-08/25/content_8744700_2.htm, accessed 25 August 2007.
135. Xinua.net, "11 jie quanguo renda daibiao goucheng tese pingxi" ("Analysis of the composition and characteristics of deputies of the 11th National People's Congress"), 28 February 2008, at http://www.china.com.cn/news/text/2008-02/28/content_11066339_2.htm, accessed 28 Februrary 2008.
136. "Shijiazhuang quanmian chaichu huji fanli" ("Shijiazhuang completely demolishes the huji fences"), Zhongguo qingnian bao (The China Youth Daily), 12 August 2001, p. 1.
137. "Shijiazhuang huji biange chongjibo" ("The blasting wave of Shijiazhuang's huji reform"), Renmin gonganbao, 22 January 2002, p. 4.
138. "Shijiazhuang completely demolishes the huji fences," p. 1.
139. According to Wang, of the 300,000 migrant workers in the city, only 11,000, or less than 4%, were eligible for this programme in 2001.
140. See Fei-ling Wang, "Brewing tensions while maintaining stabilities: The dual role of the hukou system in contemporary China," Asian Perspective, Vol. 29, No. 4 (2005), pp. 85-124.
141. Another source cited a figure of 69,834 wailai wugongzhe (outside workers) admitted in the first year of the reform. ("Shijiazhuang huji gaige yinian lai yi jiena shiwan waidi renkou" ("Shijiazhuang huji reforms admitted 100,000 outsiders in the first year") at http://www.chinanews.com.cn/2002-08-22/26/ 214618.html, accessed 3 February 2007. It appears that many migrant workers with post-secondary education were included in that category,
142. Wang Wenlu, "Renkou chengzhenhua beijing xia de huji zhidu bianqian" ("The evolution of the huji system under urbanization,") Renkou yanjiu, Vol. 27, No. 6 (2003), pp. 8-13.
143. Ibid.
144. "Shijiazhuang gong'anju guanyu shenhua woshi huji guanli zhidu gaige de shishi yijian" ("Suggestions on implementing further reforms of huji management system in our city," issued by Shijiazhuang Public Security Bureau), 27 September 2003, at http://www.chinaacc.com/new/63/74/117/2006/1/li3332418131716002574-0.htm, accessed 6 May 2007, see particularly s. 2.2.6.
145. "Pingwen liangxing: Hebei Shijiazhuang huji gaige zai zhuizong" ("Stable and benign: Further following Hebei Shijiazhuang's hukou reform"), 20 September 2004, http://news.163.com/40920/9/10OCRB7H0001124T.html, accessed 6 May 2007.
146. Jinghua wanbao (Beijing Times), 15 September 2006, p. A7.
147. Migrants are seen as particularly vulnerable in Beijing from a variety of sources as the city prepares for the 2008 Olympics. See "Beijing closes schools for migrant children in pre-Olympic clean-up."
148. "Quxiao hukou jiexian dui chengshi guanli shi chang tiaozhan" ("Abolishing hukou boundary is a big challenge to urban management"), Diyi caijing ribao, 1 November 2005, p. A02. Fei-Ling Wang, Organizing through Division and Exclusion.
149. Fei-Ling Wang, "Brewing tensions while maintaining stabilities."
150. In recent years, the Chinese media are full of stories of corruption in association with land expropriation and real estate development projects involving government officials.
151. Anita Chan and Robert J. S. Ross, "Racing to the bottom: Industrial trade without a social clause," Third World Quarterly, Vol. 24, No. 6 (2003), pp. 1011-28.
152. Cindy Fan, China on the Move: Migration, the State, and the Household (New York: Routledge, 2008).
153. Fei-Ling Wang, "Reformed migration control and new targeted people," p. 129.
154. Bray similarly finds that important institutional and socio-cultural legacies of the past are frequently ignored in Western analysis of changes to the urban danwei system. See David Bray, Social Space and Governance in Urban China: The Danwei System from Origins to Reform (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005), ch. 7.
155. For example, see "66 guo chengren zhongguo wanquan shichang jingji diwei san da huoban shang wei songkou" ("66 countries recognize China's status as a market economy but the three largest trading partners have not done so") 15 January 2007, at http://www.china.com.cn/news/txt/2007-01/15/content_7652990.htm, accessed 16 January 2007.