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Volumn 34, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 777-794

The 'value' of positive security

(1)  Roe, Paul a  

a NONE

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EID: 51349113311     PISSN: 02602105     EISSN: 14699044     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0260210508008279     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (95)

References (96)
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    • McSweeney, p. 153.
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    • Ibid, p. 92.
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    • Ibid.
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    • Ibid.
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    • A similar point is made by Didier Bigo. He talks of so-called 'security professionals'; national and local police organisations, military police, border guards, custom guards, armies, and so forth, who manage risk and fear. Such security professionals 'transfer the legitimacy they gain from struggles against terrorists, criminals, spies, and counterfeiters' towards other targets in order to support their own interest; competition for budgets and for competencies. Bigo, 'Security and Immigration: Toward a Critique of the Governmentality of Unease', Alternatives, 27, Special Edition (2002), pp. 63-4.
    • A similar point is made by Didier Bigo. He talks of so-called 'security professionals'; national and local police organisations, military police, border guards, custom guards, armies, and so forth, who manage risk and fear. Such security professionals 'transfer the legitimacy they gain from struggles against terrorists, criminals, spies, and counterfeiters' towards other targets in order to support their own interest; competition for budgets and for competencies. Bigo, 'Security and Immigration: Toward a Critique of the Governmentality of Unease', Alternatives, 27, Special Edition (2002), pp. 63-4.
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    • Ibid.
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    • Taylor Owen, 'Human Security - Conflict, Critique and Consensus: Colloquium Remarks and a Proposal for a Threshold-Based Definition', Security Dialogue, 35:3 (2004), p. 375.
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    • McSweeney, p. 89
    • McSweeney, p. 89.
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    • Or environmental disasters are at least very rarely down to the purposive behaviour of others. Among the few possible exceptions might be the deliberate damming of rivers in order to cause environmental degradation further downstream in neighbouring countries
    • Or environmental disasters are at least very rarely down to the purposive behaviour of others. Among the few possible exceptions might be the deliberate damming of rivers in order to cause environmental degradation further downstream in neighbouring countries.
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    • McSweeney, p. 89
    • McSweeney, p. 89.
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    • Ibid, pp. 95-6.
  • 25
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    • Ibid, p. 99.
  • 26
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    • Ibid, p. 154.
  • 27
    • 51349089318 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Here, McSweeney's position resembles that of Kanti Bajpai. Bajpai argues for an essentially broad human security concept, but also makes clear that this should include only threats deriving from human agents. Bajpai, 'Human Security: Concept and Measurement', Joan B. Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies, Occasional Paper, no.19, 2000.
    • Here, McSweeney's position resembles that of Kanti Bajpai. Bajpai argues for an essentially broad human security concept, but also makes clear that this should include only threats deriving from human agents. Bajpai, 'Human Security: Concept and Measurement', Joan B. Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies, Occasional Paper, no.19, 2000.
  • 28
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    • McSweeney, p. 208
    • McSweeney, p. 208.
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    • Governing Terrorism Through Risk: Taking Precautions, (un)Knowing the Future
    • See, for example
    • See, for example, Claudia Aradau & Rens Van Munster, 'Governing Terrorism Through Risk: Taking Precautions, (un)Knowing the Future', European Journal of International Relations, 13:1 (2007);
    • (2007) European Journal of International Relations , vol.13 , pp. 1
    • Aradau, C.1    Van Munster, R.2
  • 30
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    • Security! What do you Mean? From Concept to Thick Signifier
    • Huysmans, 'Security! What do you Mean? From Concept to Thick Signifier', European. Journal of International Relations, 4:2(1998);
    • (1998) European. Journal of International Relations , vol.4 , pp. 2
    • Huysmans1
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    • Globalization and Religious Nationalism: Self, Identity, and the Search for Ontological Security
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    • it Sounds Like a Riddle: Security Studies, the War on Terror and Risk
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  • 34
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    • Although foundational work on ontological security can also be attributed to the Scottish psychiatrist, R. D. Laing, See Laing, The Divided Self London: Penguin, 1960
    • Although foundational work on ontological security can also be attributed to the Scottish psychiatrist, R. D. Laing, See Laing, The Divided Self (London: Penguin, 1960).
  • 36
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    • Giddens, quoted in Kinvall, p. 746.
    • Giddens, quoted in Kinvall, p. 746.
  • 37
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    • Anchoring Europe's Civilizing Identity: Habits, Capabilities and Ontological Security'
    • Jennifer Mitzen, 'Anchoring Europe's Civilizing Identity: Habits, Capabilities and Ontological Security', Journal of European Public Policy, 13:2 (2006), p. 273.
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    • Mitzen, J.1
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    • Ontological Security in World Politics: State Identity and the Security Dilemma
    • Mitzen, 'Ontological Security in World Politics: State Identity and the Security Dilemma', European Journal of International Relations, 12:3 (2006), p. 346.
    • (2006) European Journal of International Relations , vol.12 , Issue.3 , pp. 346
    • Mitzen1
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    • Here, my emphasis on a basic trust in others buys largely into the same 'socially dependent' formulation of ontological security as that employed by Mitzen. Others, however, such as Catarina Kinnvall, seek also to emphasise a more psychoanalytical approach. Kinnvall argues that 'too strong an emphasis on social context tends to ignore the emotional dimension of subjectivity'. Kinnvall, p. 752. Laing's work, moreover, stresses more the securing of self-identity through time, where the pursuit of ontological security does not presuppose any identification with an 'Other'. I am grateful to one of the anonymous reviewers for drawing my attention to these points.
    • Here, my emphasis on a basic trust in others buys largely into the same 'socially dependent' formulation of ontological security as that employed by Mitzen. Others, however, such as Catarina Kinnvall, seek also to emphasise a more psychoanalytical approach. Kinnvall argues that 'too strong an emphasis on social context tends to ignore the emotional dimension of subjectivity'. Kinnvall, p. 752. Laing's work, moreover, stresses more the securing of self-identity through time, where the pursuit of ontological security does not presuppose any identification with an 'Other'. I am grateful to one of the anonymous reviewers for drawing my attention to these points.
  • 42
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    • McSweeney, p. 156
    • McSweeney, p. 156.
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    • Ibid.
  • 44
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    • Huysmans also makes the distinction between ontological security and what he calls 'daily security, However, differently to Steele, for Huysmans ontological security relates more to an epistemological condition than a particular fixing of identity. Approaching ontological security not only through Giddens but also through the work of Zygmunt Bauman, Huysmans begins by arguing that security relations are constituted by a 'double fear, the first being the fear of physical death; the second being the fear of uncertainty, which is an epistemological fear. Physical fear (daily security) involves the identification and countering of unambiguous (material) threats; the maintenance of a particular order. In this way, daily security seeks to distinguish friends from enemies. Epistemological fear (ontological security) concerns rather 'how to order social relations while simultaneously guaranteeing the very activity of ordering itself. Huysmans, Security! What Do You Mean, p. 242
    • Huysmans also makes the distinction between ontological security and what he calls 'daily security'. However, differently to Steele, for Huysmans ontological security relates more to an epistemological condition than a particular fixing of identity. Approaching ontological security not only through Giddens but also through the work of Zygmunt Bauman, Huysmans begins by arguing that security relations are constituted by a 'double fear': the first being the fear of physical death; the second being the fear of uncertainty, which is an epistemological fear. Physical fear (daily security) involves the identification and countering of unambiguous (material) threats; the maintenance of a particular order. In this way, daily security seeks to distinguish friends from enemies. Epistemological fear (ontological security) concerns rather 'how to order social relations while simultaneously guaranteeing the very activity of ordering itself. Huysmans, 'Security! What Do You Mean', p. 242.
  • 45
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    • Ontological Security and the Power of Self Identity: British Neutrality and the American Civil War
    • table 1
    • Brent J. Steele, 'Ontological Security and the Power of Self Identity: British Neutrality and the American Civil War', Review of International Studies, 31:3 (2005), p. 527, table 1.
    • (2005) Review of International Studies , vol.31 , Issue.3 , pp. 527
    • Steele, B.J.1
  • 46
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    • McSweeney, p. 176
    • McSweeney, p. 176.
  • 47
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    • Ibid, p. 153.
  • 48
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    • Ibid.
  • 49
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    • Ibid.
  • 52
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    • Steele, p. 528
    • Steele, p. 528.
  • 55
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    • For the literature on pluralistic security communities, see especially Emanuel Adler and Michael Barnett eds, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
    • For the literature on pluralistic security communities, see especially Emanuel Adler and Michael Barnett (eds), Security Communities (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
    • (1998) Security Communities
  • 56
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    • For the literature more generally on self-identity and foreign and security policy, see Peter J. Katzenstein ed, New York: Columbia University Press
    • For the literature more generally on self-identity and foreign and security policy, see Peter J. Katzenstein (ed.), 'The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996).
    • (1996) The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics
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    • Mitzen defines a 'civilizing' identity as entailing, amongst other things, a commitment to multilateralism and the pursuit of representative democracy, the rule of law, social justice, and human rights in its foreign policy. See
    • Mitzen defines a 'civilizing' identity as entailing, amongst other things, a commitment to multilateralism and the pursuit of representative democracy, the rule of law, social justice, and human rights in its foreign policy. See Mitzen, 'Anchoring Europe's Civilizing Identity'.
    • Anchoring Europe's Civilizing Identity
    • Mitzen1
  • 58
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    • Mitzen suggests that potentially applicable cases in this regard are superpower competition between the US and the Soviet Union during the Cold War and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict following the failure of the Oslo Accords. See Mitzen, Ontological Security in World Polities
    • Mitzen suggests that potentially applicable cases in this regard are superpower competition between the US and the Soviet Union during the Cold War and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict following the failure of the Oslo Accords. See Mitzen, 'Ontological Security in World Polities'.
  • 59
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    • Referring to Poststructural and Social Constructivist approaches to security, McSweeney accepts that states can acquire identities; endogenously from domestic culture and exogenously from interactions in the international system. Although analogous to individuals in this way, he nevertheless firmly rejects the proposition that states are real persons. See especially Chapter Nine, Seeing a Different World
    • Referring to Poststructural and Social Constructivist approaches to security, McSweeney accepts that states can acquire identities; endogenously from domestic culture and exogenously from interactions in the international system. Although analogous to individuals in this way, he nevertheless firmly rejects the proposition that states are real persons. See especially Chapter Nine, 'Seeing a Different World: A Reflexive Sociology of Security'.
    • A Reflexive Sociology of Security
  • 60
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    • Wendt, p. 316
    • Wendt, p. 316.
  • 61
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    • Paper for the 47th ISA Convention, San Diego, USA, 22-26 March
    • Felix Berenskoetter, '"Survival" and "Friendship" in International Polities', Paper for the 47th ISA Convention, San Diego, USA, 22-26 March 2006.
    • (2006) Survival
    • Berenskoetter, F.1
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    • Berenskoetter, p. 10
    • Berenskoetter, p. 10.
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    • Kinnvall, p. 749
    • Kinnvall, p. 749.
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    • Ibid, p. 754.
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    • Berenskoetter, p. 11
    • Berenskoetter, p. 11.
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    • McSweeney, p. 142
    • McSweeney, p. 142.
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    • Ibid, pp. 157-8.
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    • Ibid, p. 209.
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    • Ontological security allows agency, and having such agency also enables the pursuit. As McSweeney points out, however, such a process is not only an 'identity first' one: 'What we want follows from who we are, It can also be an 'interests first' one: interests can play the decisive role in triggering the process of identity transformation. We are who we want to be, Thus, he goes on: 'We misunderstand, ontological security, if we restrict analysis to the cognitive, cultural dimension, however. Material resources play a central role in both, W]ith the construction and management of collective identity, m]aterial interests interact with cognitive options to influence the choice of identity, McSweeney, pp. 127 and 209
    • Ontological security allows agency, and having such agency also enables the pursuit. As McSweeney points out, however, such a process is not only an 'identity first' one: 'What we want follows from who we are'. It can also be an 'interests first' one: interests can play the decisive role in triggering the process of identity transformation. We are who we want to be'. Thus, he goes on: 'We misunderstand ... ontological security ... if we restrict analysis to the cognitive, cultural dimension, however. Material resources play a central role in both.... [W]ith the construction and management of collective identity ... [m]aterial interests interact with cognitive options to influence the choice of identity'. McSweeney, pp. 127 and 209.
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    • Kinnvall, p. 741
    • Kinnvall, p. 741.
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    • Smith, pp. 486-7
    • Smith, pp. 486-7.
  • 74
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    • Ibid, p. 488.
  • 75
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    • Ibid.
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    • Wolfers, quoted in ibid, p. 489.
    • Wolfers, quoted in ibid, p. 489.
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    • Ibid, p. 491.
  • 78
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    • Ibid, p. 489.
  • 79
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    • Ibid, p. 497.
  • 80
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    • See Ole Waever, Barry Buzan and Jap de Wilde, Security: A. New Frame for Analysis (London: Lynne Rienner, 1998).
    • See Ole Waever, Barry Buzan and Jap de Wilde, Security: A. New Frame for Analysis (London: Lynne Rienner, 1998).
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    • Arguably, the Copenhagen School has an a prior conception of the nature of the referent, and therefore does not enquire into how objects are constituted.
    • Arguably, the Copenhagen School has an a prior conception of the nature of the referent, and therefore does not enquire into how objects are constituted.
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    • Smith, p. 500
    • Smith, p. 500.
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    • Ibid, p. 494. Here, that the reproduction of order is a distinctly political move shares much in common with both Huysmans and Kinnvall's concentration on security as a 'thick signifier'. In this sense, security relations are a particular way of structuring life. And utilising security as a thick signifier, Kinnvall notes, thus 'means unmasking those structural relations through which security discourses are framed, as such relations reflect the 'inequality of power between those involved and those affected by the discourse'. Kinnvall, p. 745; Huysmans, 'Security! What Do You Mean?'.
    • Ibid, p. 494. Here, that the (reproduction of order is a distinctly political move shares much in common with both Huysmans and Kinnvall's concentration on security as a 'thick signifier'. In this sense, security relations are a particular way of structuring life. And utilising security as a thick signifier, Kinnvall notes, thus 'means unmasking those structural relations through which security discourses are framed", as such relations reflect the 'inequality of power between those involved and those affected by the discourse'. Kinnvall, p. 745; Huysmans, 'Security! What Do You Mean?'.
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    • London: Lynne Rienner, See especially Chapter Six, From Human Needs to Global Values
    • Peter Lawler, A Question of Values: Johan Galtung's Peace Research (London: Lynne Rienner, 1995). See especially Chapter Six, 'From Human Needs to Global Values'.
    • (1995) A Question of Values: Johan Galtung's Peace Research
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    • Arguably, states are constituted by values that refer to the requirement for physical security; for example, autonomy and territorial integrity that can be violated by military means. But the defence against physical harm in this way remains defined as negative security
    • Arguably, states are constituted by values that refer to the requirement for physical security; for example, autonomy and territorial integrity that can be violated by military means. But the defence against physical harm in this way remains defined as negative security.
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    • In its original definition, negative peace was defined as the absence of war and actual physical violence, while positive peace was described as the 'integration of human society'. Since then, however, as Lawler points out, positive peace has been equated with a plurality of values including 'cooperation, freedom from fear or want, economic development, absence of exploitation, equality, justice, freedom of action, pluralism and dynamism'. In short, he goes on, 'it was synonymous with a specific understanding of the global good life'. Lawler, p. 54.
    • In its original definition, negative peace was defined as the absence of war and actual physical violence, while positive peace was described as the 'integration of human society'. Since then, however, as Lawler points out, positive peace has been equated with a plurality of values including 'cooperation, freedom from fear or want, economic development, absence of exploitation, equality, justice, freedom of action, pluralism and dynamism'. In short, he goes on, 'it was synonymous with a specific understanding of the global good life'. Lawler, p. 54.
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    • See The Report of the Independent Commission on Security Issues under the Chairmanship of Olof Palme, Common Security: A Programme for Disarmament London: Pan, 1982
    • See The Report of the Independent Commission on Security Issues under the Chairmanship of Olof Palme, Common Security: A Programme for Disarmament (London: Pan, 1982).
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    • I am grateful to one of the anonymous referees for clarifying this particular line of thought
    • I am grateful to one of the anonymous referees for clarifying this particular line of thought.


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