From Exodus to Exile: Black pentecostals, migrating pilgrims, and imagined internationalism

American Quarterly

Volumn 59, Issue 3, 2007, Pages 737-757

  Hardy III, Clarence E ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 51249147830     PISSN: 00030678     EISSN: 10806490     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/aq.2007.0057     Document Type: Review

References (80)

1. For an account of Ida Robinson's visions, see Harold Dean Trulear, "Reshaping Black Pastoral Theology: The Vision of Bishop Ida B. Robinson," Journal of Religious Thought 46.1 (Summer-Fall 1989): 21
2. For additional biographical information about her life, music, and sermons, see Harold Dean Trulear, "Ida B. Robinson: The Mother as Symbolic Presence," in Portraits of a Generation: Early Pentecostal Leaders, ed. James R. Goff Jr. and Grant Wacker (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2002), 309-24
3. and Bettye Collier-Thomas, Daughters of Thunder: Black Women Preachers and Their Sermons, 1850-1979 (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998), 194-210
4. For a genealogy of the term diaspora, its relation to Jewish intellectual history, and its entrance into scholarly and activists' analyses of black internationalism in the postwar period, see Brent Hayes Edwards, "The Uses of Diaspora," Social Text 66 (Spring 2001): 45-73
5. Collier-Thomas, Daughters of Thunder, 194
6. David Martin, Pentecostalism: The World Their Parish (Maiden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2002)
7. I have adopted both the reading of Stuart Hall's ideas and the metaphor of joints from Brent Edwards. See Edwards's "The Uses of Diaspora" 64-66
8. For Stuart Hall's central article on articulation, see his "Race, Articulation, and Societies Structured in Dominance," in Black British Cultural Studies: A Reader, ed. Houston Baker, Manthia Diawara, and Ruth H. Lindeborg (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 16-60
9. Michael A. Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 15-16
10. Dan Fountain, "Christ Unchained: African American Conversions During the Civil War Era," Ohio Valley History 3.2 (Summer 2003): 31-48
11. Katharine L. Dvorak, "After the Apocalypse, Moses," in Masters and Slaves in the House of the Lord: Race and Religion in the American South, 1740-1870, ed. John B. Boles (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1988), 173
12. Alain Locke, "The New Negro," in The New Negro (1925; New York: Atheneum, 1989), 14
13. The phrase "practice of diaspora" comes from Brent Hayes Edwards's brilliant examination of black transnational print culture in New York and Paris. See his The Practice of Diaspora: Literature, Translation, and the Rise of Black Internationalism (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2003)
14. Cheryl J. Sanders, Saints in Exile: The Holiness-Pentecostal Experience in African American Religion and Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), viii-ix, 143-44
15. Paul Gilroy adopts the term "travelling cultures" from James T. Clifford's "Travelling Cultures," in Cultural Studies, ed. Lawrence Grossbergetal. (New York: Routledge, 1992)
16. See his The Black Atlantic-Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993), 17
17. This notion that African Americans constructed a national Baptist denomination in an effort to achieve visibility and social power comes from James Melvin Washington's Frustrated Fellowship: The Black Baptist Quest for Social Power (Macon, Ga.: Mercer University Press, 1986)
18. Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, trans. Charles Lam Markmann (New York: Grove Press, 1967), 110
19. For an example of this cooperation on the local church level, see Thomas Armstrong, "The Building of a Black Church: Community in Post Civil War Liberty County, Georgia," Georgia Historical Quarterly 66.3 (Fall 1982): 346-67
20. Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, Righteous Discontent: The Women's Movement in the Blasck Baptist Church, 1880-1920 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993), 88-119
21. Sandy D. Martin, Black Baptists and African Missions: The Origins of a Movement, 1880-1915 (Macon, Ga.: Mercer University Press, 1989), 12-19, 219-20
22. David W. Wills, "Exodus Piety: African American Religion in an Age of Immigration," in Minority Faiths and the American Protestant Mainstream, ed. Jonathan D. Sarna (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998), 164
23. Wills, "Exodus Piety," 164
24. Paul Harvey, Redeeming the South: Religious Cultures and Racial Identities among Southern Baptists, 1865-1925 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 52
25. Quoted in Harvey, Redeeming the South, 52
26. Inspired by Sidney Hook's Pragmatism and the Tragic Sense of Life (New York: Basic Books, 1974)
27. Eddie Glaude frames black political life around this notion of the tragic. See Eddie Glaude, Exodus! Religion, Race, and Nation in Early Nineteenth-Century Black America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 166-67
28. Quoted in Glaude, Exodus! 156
29. Higginbotham, Righteous Discontent, 197
30. Nancy Fraser, Unruly Practices: Power, Discourse, and Gender in Contemporary Social Theory (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989), 174
31. Linking together surveillance with state mechanisms of control, Michel Foucault argues: "The exercise of discipline presupposes a mechanism that coerces by means of observation." See his Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alex Sheridan (New York: Vintage Books, 1977), 170
32. Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, 116
33. Clifton H. Johnson, God Struck Me Dead: Voices of Ex-Slaves (Cleveland: Pilgrim Press, 1969), 92
34. George Rawick, ed., The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1972-), Supplement series 1, Mississippi, vol. 6, part 1, 623
35. Rawick, The American Slave, Supplement series 1, South Carolina, vol. 3, part 3, 5
36. Otho B. Cobbins, ed., History of Church of the Christ (Holiness) USA, 1895-1965 (New York: Vantage Press, 1966), 23-24
37. J. H. Green, introduction to Charles Price Jones, An Appeal to the Sons of Africa: A Number of Poems, Readings, Orations and Lectures, Designed Especially to Inspire Youth of African Blood with Sentiments of Hope and True Nobility as well as to Entertain and Instruct All Classes of Readers and Lovers of Redeemed Humanity (n.p.: Truth Publishing, 1902), xv
38. I am thankful to David Daniels for suggesting to me Campbell's influence on William Christian. For the suggested associations between Mason and Christian, see David D. Daniels, "Charles Harrison Mason: The Interracial Impulse of Early Pentecostalism," in Portraits of a Generation, ed. Goff and Wacker, 259
39. John Giggie, "God's Long Journey: African-Americans, Religion, and History in the Mississippi Delta, 1875-1915" (PhD diss., Princeton University, 1997), 196-204
40. Charles Price Jones, The Gift of the Holy Ghost in the Book of Acts (Los Angeles: National Publishing Board of the Church of Christ [Holiness], 1996), 40
41. quoted in Dale T. Irvin, "Charles Price Jones," in Portraits of a Generation, ed. Goff & Wacker, 41
42. Alvin M. Harrell, The First One Hundred Years: The History of the Church of the Living God, (Rialto, Calif: Harrell, 1993), 20-25
43. William Christian, Poor Pilgrims Work in the Name of the Father, Son and Holy Ghost (Texarkana: Joe Erlich Print, 1896), 24
44. Jones, An Appeal to the Sons of Africa, 29
45. For more on Mason's distinctive role, see Daniels, "The Cultural Renewal of Slave Religion," 88, 186-88
46. Charley C. White, as told to Ada Morehead Holland, No Quittin' Sense (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1969), 120
47. C. Eric Lincoln and Lawrence H. Mamiya, The Black Church in the African American Experience (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1990), 82
48. Cobbins, History of the Church of Christ, 27
49. American Baptist, June 26, 1868, as quoted in Washington, Frustrated Fellowship, 109
50. For the African legacy evident in female leadership roles, see Cheryl Townsend Gilkes, "The Politics of 'Silence': Dual-Sex Political Systems and Women's Traditions of Conflict in African-American Religion," in African American Christianity: Essays in History, ed. Paul E. Johnson (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997)
51. For an example of women's waning influence in congregational life during the later half of the nineteenth century, see Brown, "Negotiating and Transforming the Public Sphere: African-American Political Life in the Transition from Slavery to Freedom," in Black Public Sphere Collective, ed., The Black Public Sphere: A Public Culture Book (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995)
52. Cheryl Townsend Gilkes, "'Together and in Harness': Women's Traditions in the Sanctified Church," in African American Religious Thought, 636
53. see also Anthea D. Butler, "Church Mothers and Migration in the Church of God in Christ," in Religion in the American South: Protestants and Others in History and Culture (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004)
54. Kelly Willis Mendiola, "The Hand of a Woman: Four Holiness-Pentecostal Evangelists and American Culture, 1840-1930" (PhD diss., University of Texas, Austin, 2002), 291-92
55. Helen M. Lewis and Meharry H. Lewis, Seventy-fifth Anniversary Yearbook of the Church of the Living God, Pillar and Ground of the Truth, 1903-1978 (Nashville, Tenn.: New and Living Way, 1978), 9-10
56. One distinctive practice, for example, that Christian's group and Tate's group share is using water instead of wine or grape juice for the Communion rite. They have similar explanations and defenses for the practice as well. See Harrell, The First One Hundred Years, 106-14
57. Christian, Poor Pilgrim's Work, 11-12
58. Mary Magdalena Tate, The Constitution Government and General Decree Book of the Church of the Living God, Pillar and Ground of the Truth (Chattanooga, Tenn.: New and Living Way, 1924), 65
59. Mary Magdalena Tate, "The Name of the Lord Is a Strong Tower; the Righteous Runneth into It, and Is Safe," in Mary Lena Lewis Tate: Collected Letters and Manuscripts, ed. Meharry H. Lewis (Nashville: New and Living Way Publishing, 2003), 22
60. For Horn's place in the Harlem community and religious life, including descriptions of her church building, see Cheryl Lynn Greenberg, "Or Does It Explode?" Black Harlem in the Great Depression (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 59
61. and James Campbell, Talking at the Gates: A Life of fames Baldwin (New York: Viking, 1991), 36
62. "Church of All Faiths Now Favorite of Air Waves," Amsterdam News, October 31, 1936, Sherry Sherrod DuPree African-American Pentecostal and Holiness collection, 1876-1989, Box 10, Folder 17, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, New York
63. Tate, General Decree Book, 59
64. Michelle A. Stephens, "Black Transnationalism and the Politics of National Identity: West Indian Intellectuals in Harlem in the Age of War and Revolution," American Quarterly 50.3 (September 1998): 592
65. Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, trans. Constance Farrington (New York: Grove Press, 1963), 247-48
66. Michelle Stephens, "Re-imagining the Shape and Borders of Black Political Space," Radical History Review 87 (Spring 1997): 173
67. See also Michelle Stephens, Black Empire: The Masculine Global Imaginary of Caribbean Intellectuals in the United States, 1914-1962 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2005), esp. chap. 3
68. Nathaniel Deutsch, "'The Asiatic Black Man': An African ,American Orientalism?" Journal of Asian American Studies 4.3 (September 2001): 196-98
69. Arthur Huff Fauset, Black Gods of the Metropolis: Negro Religious Cults of the Urban North (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1944), 42
70. Theodore Kornweibel Jr., "Bishop C. H. Mason and the Church of God in Christ during World War I: The Perils of Conscientious Objection," Southern Studies 26 (Fall 1987)
71. Grant Wacker, Heaven Below: Early Pentecostals and American Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001), 248-49
72. [Flyer], Box 1, Folder 3, Moorish Science Temple of America collection, 1926-1967, Schomburg Research Library for Black Culture, New York Public Library, New York
73. Noble Drew Ali, Moorish Literature (n.p.: n.p., 1928), 6. Box 1, Folder 2, Moorish Science Temple of America collection, 1926-1967
74. Beryl Satter, "Marcus Garvey, Father Divine, and the Gender Politics of Race Difference and Race Neutrality," American Quarterly 48.1 (January 1996): 44
75. Jill Watts, God, Harlem U.S.A.: The Father Divine Story (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 25
76. For more on Azusa Street's role as the mythical origin of the Pentecostal movement, see Joe Creech, "Visions of Glory: The Place of the Azusa Street Revival in Pentecostal History," Church History 65 (September 1996): 405-24
77. Charles Samuel Braden, These Also Believe: A Study of Modern American Cults and Minority Religious Movements (New York: Macmillan, 1949), 19
78. See Robert Weisbrot, Father Divine: The Utopian Evangelist of the Depression Era Who Became an American Legend (Boston: Beacon Press, 1983), 100-102
79. See also Braden, These Also Believe, 25-26
80. Quoted in Jill Watts, God, Harlem U.S.A., 88