"Seeds Th at May Have Been Planted May Take Root": International Aid Nurses and Projects of Professionalism in Postindependence India, 1947-65

Nursing History Review

Volumn 16, Issue , 2008, Pages 58-90

  Healey, Madelaine ^a  

^a LA TROBE UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CLERGY; COMMUNITY HEALTH NURSING; EDUCATION; EDUCATIONAL MODEL; GOVERNMENT; HISTORY; HUMAN; INDIA; INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION; LEADERSHIP; NON PROFIT ORGANIZATION; NURSING EDUCATION; POLITICAL SYSTEM; PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE; UNITED KINGDOM; UNITED NATIONS; UNITED STATES;

COLONIALISM; EDUCATION, NURSING; FACULTY, NURSING; FOUNDATIONS; GREAT BRITAIN; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; INDIA; INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE; LEADERSHIP; MISSIONS AND MISSIONARIES; MODELS, EDUCATIONAL; PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE; PUBLIC HEALTH NURSING; TRAINING SUPPORT; UNITED NATIONS; UNITED STATES; UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT;

EID: 51149103559     PISSN: 10628061     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1891/1062-8061.16.58     Document Type: Review

References (117)

1. The title of this article is taken from Juliette M. Julien, "Case History on Nursing College Development Project No. 386-AF-54-AB-5," 1963, State Department Records, USAID, RG 286, Entry 385, Box 157, Folder "HLS 1-2 Nursing Schools (General)," 19, National Archives and Records Administration (hereafter NARA).
2. For accounts of the role of the dai in Indian healthcare, see Sean Lang, "Drop the Demon Dai: Maternal Mortality and the State in Colonial Madras, 1840-1875," Social History of Medicine 18, no. 3 (2005): 357-78.
3. Geraldine Forbes, Women in Colonial India: Essays on Politics, Medicine and Historiography (New Delhi: Chronicle, 2005).
4. Patricia Jeff ery, Roger Jeff ery, and Andrew Lyon, Labour Pains and Labour Power: Women and Childbearing in India (New Delhi: Manohar, 1989).
5. Patricia Jeff ery, Roger Jeff ery, and Andrew Lyon, "Contaminating States: Midwifery, Childbearing and the State in Rural North India," in Women, State and Ideology: Studies from Africa and Asia, ed. Haleh Afsar (London: Macmillan, 1987).
6. David Arnold, "Crisis and Contradiction in India's Public Health," in The History of Public Health and the Modern State, ed. Dorothy Porter (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1994), 353.
7. Radhika Ramasubban, "Imperial Health in British India, 1857-1900," in Disease, Medicine and Empire: Perspectives on Western Medicine and the Experience of European Expansion, ed. Roy MacLeod and Milton Lewis, 38 -60 (London: Routledge, 1988).
8. Mridula Ramanna, Western Medicine and Public Health in Colonial Bombay, 1845-1895 (London: Sangam, 2002).
9. Hilda Lazarus, "Countess of Duff erin's Fund: Women's Medical Service News," Journal of the Association of Medical Women in India 32, no. 2 (May 1944): 68-69. Lal writes that the services of the Duff erin Fund were mainly confined to upper- and middle-class women, and that it functioned more as a vehicle for the professional ambitions of English women doctors and an advertisement for the perceived superiority of British gender relations than as an eff ective measure to improve women's health. Maneesha Lal, "The Politics of Gender and Medicine in Colonial India: The Countess of Duff erin's Fund, 1885-1888," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 68, no. 1 (Spring 1994): 29-66. See also Sean Lang, "Saving India through Its Women," History Today 55, no. 9 (September 2005): 46.
10. It should be acknowledged, however, that this neglect was a matter of degree. In 1919, the government of India had transferred responsibility for health to the provincial governments. Nursing received more attention, relatively speaking, in the Bombay and Madras presidencies than in other states or in any of the nominally independent princely states.
11. "Minutes of the 28th Annual Conference of the Trained Nurses' Association of India," Nursing Journal of India (nerafter NJI 30), no. 1 (January 1939): 2.
12. Rosemary Fitzgerald, " 'Making and Moulding the Nursing of the Indian Empire': Recasting Nurses in Colonial India," in Rhetoric and Reality: Gender and the Colonial Experience in South Asia, ed. Avril A. Powell and Siobhan Lambert-Hurley (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2006).
13. Alice Wilkinson, "President's Address," in Trained Nurses' Association of India, "Annual Report of the Trained Nurses' Association of India, 1942-43, including the 32nd Annual General Meeting, January 13th and 14th, 1944," Indian Nursing Collection of Diana Hartley, RCMS 77/4/2, Royal Commonwealth Society Library, Cambridge University Library.
14. Compounders were medical assistants trained in preparing drugs. In some hospitals they took on some of the functions of the trained nurse and may in fact have been male nurses, who preferred the more socially acceptable title of compounder.
15. James B. Hance, "Major-General Hance's Speech," in "Annual Report of the Trained Nurses' Association of India."
16. Louisa Wilkinson to Ernest Bradfield, October 16, 1943, L/WS/1/876, Nurses and V.A.D.s India, 185, Oriental and India Office, British Library (hereafter BL); J. Wilson to Ernest Bradfield, October 22, 1943, Nurses and V.A.D.s India, 184, BL; British Army, "Record of a Meeting Held at Hobart House on 25th November, 1943, to Consider the Forecasted Requirements of India in Medical Officers and Nurses, and the Possible Extent to Which Contribution towards These Requirements Can Be Made from the U.K.," November 25, 1943, Nurses and V.A.D.s India, 182, BL; Government of India, War Department to Secretary of State for India, January 17, 1944, Nurses and V.A.D.s India, 179, BL; Indian Army memorandum, "Nursing Service, Indian Army," 1945, Nurses and V.A.D.s India, 107-8, BL; War Cabinet, Lord President's Committee Report, "Distribution of Nurses in the First Half of 1945," April 1945, L/WS/1/888, "Distribution of Doctors and Nurses in First Six Months of 1945," BL.
17. Janet D. Corwin, "Semiannual Report: Nursing: Feb. 11-June 30 1945," RG 5.3, Series 464C, Box 204, Folder 2493, 3-4, Rockefeller Foundation (hereafter RF). The Rockefeller Foundation archives are located at the Rockefeller Archive Center. Sleepy Hollow, NY.
18. Tehmina K. Adranvala, "Nursing Profession in India," in Encyclopaedia of Women and Education, vol. 3, Women and Professions, ed. Usha Sharma and B. M. Sharma (New Delhi: Commonwealth, 2001), 173. Two institutions off ered the BSc (Nursing) from 1946 on: the Delhi College of Nursing and the College of Nursing at the Christian Medical College, Vellore.
19. Rosemary Fitzgerald, "Rescue and Redemption: The Rise of Female Medical Missions in Colonial India during the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century," in Nursing History and the Politics of Welfare, ed. Anne Marie Raff erty, Jane Robinson, and Ruth Elkan (London: Routledge, 1997), 65.
20. Fitzgerald, "Rescue and Redemption," 65
21. Arnold, "Crisis and Contradiction in India's Public Health," 339. Although the services they off ered were important in the communities in which they were situated, missions were distributed with great unevenness throughout India, and tended to be located in areas where a significant Christian community had developed. Their services were always overconcentrated in South India. In 1937, 25 percent of mission hospitals under the Protestant Christian Medical Association of India network were in the Madras Presidency and 13 percent in the Bombay Presidency. The heavily populated and impoverished northern states of Rajasthan, Bihar, and United Provinces had 3, 6, and 8 percent respectively. Rama Baru, "Missionaries in Medical Care," Economic and Political Weekly, February 27-March 5, 1999.
22. Fitzgerald, "Rescue and Redemption," 76-77
23. Fitzgerald, "Making and Moulding the Nursing of the Indian Empire."
24. Borthwick writes that in Bengal in 1905, complaints were made against the European lady superintendent of the Calcutta Duff erin Hospital on the grounds that she was substituting Eurasian nurses from Bombay for "native nurses," who were dismissed. Meredith Borthwick, The Changing Role of Women in Bengal, 1849-1905 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984), 326. In 1923, Margaret Balfour reported that the Madras Maternity Hospital had trained 2,373 European and Anglo-Indian midwives, but only 72 Indians. Margaret Balfour, "Indian Nursing-Its Past and Future," NJI 14, no. 2 (February 1923): 29. In 1945, Janet Corwin, nursing advisor at the Rockefeller Foundation, made a five-monthtour of Indian hospitals. She found that government authorities still "in certain places. .. tended to discourage those other than Anglo-Indians and domiciled Europeans from becoming nurses." Corwin, "Semiannual Report: Nursing: Feb. 11-June 30 1945," 2.
25. Fitzgerald, "Rescue and Redemption," 75
26. Corwin, "Semiannual Report: Nursing: Feb. 11-June 30 1945," 4.
27. Borthwick, The Changing Role of Women in Bengal, 6. A clear manifestation of this anxiety about female sexuality in the public domain of the hospital was the restriction of Indian nurses in many parts of India to nursing women and children. In 1952, there were still fifty-three schools of nursing that did not teach the nursing of men. Tehmina K. Adranvala, "Nursing Profession in India," in India Planning Commission, Social Welfare in India (New Delhi: Planning Commission, Government of India, 1955), 394.
28. Women's knowledge of home cures and remedies is a subject that has been little explored, but accounts of the lives of nineteenth-century and early-twentieth-century Indian women frequently refer to this as an important dimension of domestic work. Borthwick writes that the shared responsibilities of the bhadralok or upper middle class in nineteenth-century Bengal included the care of children and sick patients. She details the considerable familiarity that middle-class Bengali women had with a wide array of systems of medicine-the Hindu kabiraji system and the Islamic hakimi, as well as allopathic and homeopathic medicine. Although criticism during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries lamented the loss of much of this knowledge, women had long had considerable familiarity with local herbal remedies. Bengali magazines published simple recipes for herbal medicines, and the average household in 1885 contained "measuring glasses, scales and weights( a wooden syringe, and a thermometer, as well as a long list of basic drugs." Borthwick, The Changing Role of Women in Bengal, 216-20. Walsh describes a 1900 advice manual for women, written by the female poet Nagendrabala Dasi, which contained a sixpage section with advice on ayurvedic medicines suitable for children's illnesses. Judith E. Walsh, Domesticity in Colonial India: What Women Learned When Men Gave Them Advice (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2004), 161.
29. For a discussion, see Dolores Chew, "The Search for Kathleen McNally and Other Chimerical Women: Colonial and Post-Colonial Gender Representations of Eurasians," in Translating Desire: The Politics and Gender of Culture in India, ed. Brinda Bose (New Delhi: Katha, 2002), 3. Anglo-Indians often self-consciously pursued a lifestyle close to that of the British and, according to W. T. Roy, represented a subculture with "a tradition of fairly free mixing of the sexes." It was common for Anglo-Indian women to pursue paid employment, and they also dominated the ranks of air hostesses and clerical assistants. W. T. Roy, "Hostages to Fortune (A Socio-Political Study of the Anglo-Indian Remnant in India)," Plural Societies 2 (1974): 60.
30. Alice Wilkinson, A Brief History of Nursing in India and Pakistan (Madras: TNAI, 1958), 96. It was suggested, however, by the eminent doctor and politician Sir Jivraj Mehta, that, although seven thousand nurses were on the register, double registration and marriage meant that the number of nurses actually working may have been closer to three thousand. Jivraj Narayan Mehta, "Medical Services in India (The Sir George Birdwood Memorial Lecture)," Journal of the Royal Society of Arts 113, no. 5112 (November 1965): 1001.
31. Julien, "Case History on Nursing College Development," 22-23
32. Excerpts from Elizabeth W. Brackett's diary, January 1952, RG 6.1, Series 2.1 (Post-War Correspondence), Box 44, Folder 403, "DMPH India, Nursing," RF. This distaste was typical of the more general discourse of development prevalent in American aid projects of the era, which was marked by a rejection of colonialism and the projection of an idealistic new egalitarianism among nations. For a discussion of this discourse and the structural inequalities it disguised, see Gilbert Rist, The History of Development: From Western Origins to Global Faith (London: Zed Books, 1997), 72-74.
33. E. Kathleen Russell to M. E. Tennant, June 4, 1949, RG 2, Series 464C, Box 461, Folder 3094, RF.
34. In the United States, massive postwar nurse shortages had driven rapid implementation of ill-planned change, so that "the situation was virtual chaos" in many hospitals throughout the country. What was entailed by the claim to be a "nurse" was fuzzier than ever before: in prewar America, a nurse was either a student or a trained hospital graduate; after the war, with the rapid expansion in hospital care, "a 'nurse' could be a student, graduate or practical nurse, an aide, or an orderly." Joan E. Lynaugh and Barbara L. Brush, American Nursing: From Hospitals to Health Systems (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1996), 4, 23. This caused considerable confusion and wild regional disparities over just what constituted nurses' work. Studies conducted during the 1950s revealed that many college nursing programs were ill defined, hastily and shoddily assembled, and in a state of chaos. It was clear that college programs had not provided a solution to the ongoing issue of how best to educate nurses.
35. Committee from the Christian Medical Association of India, Burma and Ceylon and the Nurses' Auxiliary. A Survey of Nursing and Nursing Education in Mission Hospitals and Schools of Nursing in India (Mysore: Wesley Press and Publishing House, 1947): 19.
36. Report of the Health Survey and Development Committee (New Delhi: Government of India, 1946)
37. Arnold, "Crisis and Contradiction in India's Public Health," 351
38. Roger Jeffery, "Toward a Political Economy of Health Care: Comparisons of India and Pakistan," in Health, Poverty and Development in India, ed. Monica Das Gupta, Lincoln C. Chen, and T. N. Krishnan (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996), 277.
39. In 1972, there were in fact only 82,330. India: A Reference Annual 1974 (New Delhi: Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, 1975), 82.
40. "The Health Survey and Development Committee (Bhore Committee), 1943- 46: A Synopsis of the Findings," in Indian Nursing Year Book, 1986-87 (New Delhi: TNAI, 1988): Comm-1-Comm-4 ["Comm" refers to the section of the publication devoted to analysis of government Committees]
41. Meera Abraham, Religion, Caste and Gender: Missionaries and Nursing History in South India (Madras: B. I. Publications, 1996), 105.
42. Kumari Lakshmi Devi, "Is There a Shortage of Nurses?" NJI 42, no. 2 (February 1951): 63-64. 39. Jeff ery, "Toward a Political Economy of Health Care," 276.
43. Edwina Mountbatten to Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, August 15, 1948, List no. 14, Papers of Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Correspondence with Edwina Mountbatten, Series M-13, Nehru Memorial Library, New Delhi.
44. Anna M. Noll, "Semi-Annual Report-Nursing (India and Ceylon), January 31 to June 30, 1948," RG 5.3, Series 464C, Box 204, Folder 2496, 5, RF. 42. Ibid.
45. "Policy of the Trained Nurses Association of India," NJI 42, no. 1 (January 1951): 41.
46. Julien, "Case History on Nursing College Development Project," 28
47. Ibid., 29.
48. Tehmina K. Adranvala, "Developments in Nursing 1947-57," NJI 49, no. 10 (October 1958): 327.
49. Joan E. Lynaugh, "From Chaos to Transformation," in Nurses of All Nations: A History of the International Council of Nurses, 1899-1999, ed. Barbara L. Brush and others (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1999), 111.
50. International Organisations and India's Health Programmes (New Delhi: Central Health Education Bureau, Government of India, 1961), 1
51. Ibid., 15; "Colombo Plan Nurses," NJI 44, no. 8 (August 1953): 204-5.
52. International Organisations and India's Health Programmes, 19
53. Ibid., 26.
54. Reference for Lillian Alice Johnson from Community Service Society, New York, November 25, 1952, RG 6.1, Series 2.1 (Post-War Correspondence), Box 44, Folder 402, "DMPH India, Lillian Johnson, 1952-54," RF.
55. Anna Noll to Mary Elizabeth Tennant, March 13, 1946, RG 2, Series 100, Box 320, Folder 2168, RF
56. "Colombo Plan Nurses," 204-5
57. A World Health Organization (WHO) committee stated in 1951 that "in countries where medicine is highly developed and nursing is not, the health status of the people does not refl ect the advanced stage of medicine. Nursing is essential to the vitalization of the health programme." WHO, Technical Report Series 24, cited in Conference on Nursing Education (Tehran: 14-25 April, 1964), (Central Treaty Organisation, 1964).
58. Elizabeth W. Brackett to Ann C. Deeds, July 3, 1952, RG 2, Series 100, Box 5, Folder 28, RF.
59. Adranvala, "Nursing Profession in India," 178; Adranvala, "Developments in Nursing" (2001), 328
60. Julien, "Case History on Nursing College Development Project," 20-21
61. Ibid., 8.
62. Anna M. Noll, "Report on Nursing in Mysore State," August 23, 1949, RG 2, Series 464C, Box 461, Folder 3094, 2, 4. RF.
63. The College of Nursing at Vellore also received significant attention, but as it was part of a mission hospital, it was serviced by international mission nurses and therefore required less advice and consultation, and was also politically more difficult to assist
64. Janet D. Corwin, "India: Nursing: Second Semi-Annual Report for 1946," RG 5.3, Series 464C, Box 204, Folder 2494, 8, RF.
65. Ibid., 7.
66. Diary of Elizabeth W. Bracket, 1952, RF, Series 2.1 (Post-war Correspondence), R.G. 6.1 (Paris Field Office), Box 44, folder 403, 'DMPH India, Nursing'.
67. T. K. Adranvala, 'A Review of Post-Basic and Post-Graduate Training of Nurses', NJI 56, no. 9 (September 1965): 248.
68. Excerpts from Elizabeth W. Brackett's diary, 84. Similarly, Aleyamma Kuruvilla, BSc graduate of CMC Vellore and, from 1960 onward, its dean, writes that she encountered "painful comments and destructive criticism" from the rest of the medical team, who suggested that the BSc was an "academic exercise and would be lacking in practical experience which was needed for any nursing course and hence would certainly not be suitable for India." Aleyamma Kuruvilla
69. "Letter from Miss A. Kuruvilla," in College of Nursing, Christian Medical College and Hospital: Golden Jubilee Souvenir 1946-1996 (Vellore: College of Nursing, Christian Medical College, 1996).
70. Noll, "Semi-Annual Report-Nursing (India and Ceylon), July 1 to December 31, 1948" 8.
71. Alice Forman to Douglas N. Forman, September 22, 1949, RG 2, Series 464C, Box 461, Folder 3094, RF.
72. Corwin, "India: Nursing: Second Semi-Annual Report for 1946."
73. Richmond K. Anderson to K.C.K.E. Raja, April 12, 1949, RG 2, Series 464C, Box 461, Folder 3094, RF.
74. Anna Noll to M. E. Tennant, July 25, 1949, RG 2, Series 464C, Box 461, Folder 3094, RF.
75. Corwin, "India: Nursing: Second Semi-Annual Report for 1946" 9.
76. Eugene Campbell, J. Heires, C. Pease, and Blume to Walter Wilson and Richard C. Parsons, "Recommended Deletion of Nursing College Development Project," November 7, 1962, State Department Records, USAID, RG 286, Entry 385, Box 157, Folder "HLS 1-2 Nursing Schools (General)," NARA.
77. Julien, "Case History on Nursing College Development Project," 13.
78. Ibid., 20.
79. John T. Gentry, "Nursing Education and Nursing Care: Conference with Miss Meral Loewus, Miss Alice Hagelshaw, Miss Margaret Keller, and Dr and Mrs Carlyle Jacobsen, on January 26, 1963, Hyderabad," February 11, 1963, State Department Records, USAID, RG 286, Entry 385, Box 157, Folder "HLS 1-2 Nursing Schools (General)," NARA.
80. John T. Gentry, "Conference with Dr G. L. Sharma, Director of Medical Services, Madhya Pradesh," May 1962, State Department Records, USAID, RG 286, Entry 385, Box 157, Folder "HLS 1-2 Nursing School (College of Nursing-Indore)," NARA.
81. John T. Gentry, "Conference with Miss Arline Heath, Aid Nurse Advisor, Nursing College, Indore; Conference with Dr Bhattacharya, Hospital Superintendent, Indore; and a Hospital Visit, on February 2, 1962," State Department Records, USAID, RG 286, Entry 385, Box 157, Folder "HLS 1-2 Nursing School (College of Nursing-Indore)," NARA.
82. Julien, "Case History on Nursing College Development Project," 19.
83. Ibid., 21.
84. In 1961, CMC director Dr. John Carman wrote of the difficulty even at CMC of finding sufficient teachers and administrators, due to "the large demand for our graduates to go to the many new hospitals and schools of nursing which have been growing up in this state and all over India." John Carman to Joyce Miller, June 24, 1961, CMC-D/24/58, Box 18, Director's Office File, folder "Nursing Staff, Correspondence, 1958-1965." See also Adranvala, "A Review of Post-Basic and Post-Graduate Training of Nurses," 248, Christian Medical College Archives, Vellore, Tamil Nadu.
85. For discussion of the elevation of teaching and administration over bedside nursing.
86. "Graduate Nurses" NJI 59, no. 6 ( June 1968): 179-81.
87. "Developments in Nursing," 327.
88. Harji Malik, "Planning for Nursing Services-A Must: A Report on a Workshop," NJI 59, no. 7 (July 1968): 206-7, 226.
89. Julien, "Case History on Nursing College Development Project," 22.
90. Gentry, "Nursing Education and Nursing Care."
91. Rist, The History of Development, 2.
92. Julien, "Case History on Nursing College Development Project," 24.
93. Mary Elizabeth Tennant to Elizabeth W. Brackett, December 10m 1953, RG 6.1, Series 2.1 (Post-War Correspondence), Box 44, Folder 403, "DMPH India, Nursing," RF.
94. For accounts of this, see Barbara Melosh, "The Physician's Hand": Work Culture and Confl ict in American Nursing (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982), chap. 4; Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, No Place like Home: A History of Nursing and Home Care in the United States (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001); Celia Davies, "A Constant Casualty: Nurse Education in Britain and the USA to 1939," in Rewriting Nursing History, ed. Celia Davies, 102-22 (London: Croom Helm, 1980); Phillip A. Kalisch and Beatrice J. Kalisch, The Advance of American Nursing (Boston: Little, Brown, 1986).
95. Juliette M. Julien to Richard C. Parsons, "Nursing College Development Project, India," November 6, 1962, State Department Records, USAID, RG 286, Entry 385, Box 157, Folder "HLS 1-2 Nursing Schools (General)," NARA.
96. "Public Health Education, Schools of Nursing, Far East, India and Ceylon: Developmental Aid to Nursing Education," October 26, 1945, RG 1.1, Series 464C, Folder 82, "Developmental Aid (Nursing Education) 1945-1949," RF.
97. Adranvala, "Developments in Nursing," 328.
98. Evelyn Davis, "The First Public Health Course," NJI, 44, no. 8 (August 1953): 197.
99. Evelyn Davis, "Ready to Begin," NJI 45, no. 7 (July 1954): 14.
100. Excerpts from Elizabeth W. Brackett's diary, 54.
101. Saroj Khaparde (Minister of State for Health and Family Welfare), "Meeting the Needs of the Community," Social Welfare 35 no. 10 (January 1989): 6.
102. Davis, "Ready to Begin," 14.
103. Amaravathy Bachu, "Public Health Nursing: How They Are Diff erent in the United States," NJI 61, no. 11 (November 1970): 361, 373.
104. Miriam Bucher to Robert R. Blake, May 20, 1961, State Department Records, USAID, RG 286, Entry 385, Box 157, Folder "HLS 1-2 Nursing Schools (General)," NARA.
105. Narender Nagpal, "Development of Nursing and Health Care: 1947-2000," in History and Trends in Nursing in India (Delhi: TNAI, 2001), 96-97.
106. "WHO Fellowships," NJI 42, no. 4 (April 1951): 125.
107. Julien, "Case History on Nursing College Development Project," 9.
108. Office memorandum, April 29, 1961, "General Nursing Project-Participants Cost," State Department Records, USAID, RG 286, Entry 385, Box 159, Folder "General Nursing-General Participants, FY 61," NARA.
109. Excerpts from Elizabeth W. Brackett's diary, 55-56.
110. Abraham, Religion, Caste and Gender, 107; Professor C. Chandrakanthi, Thiruvananthapuram, interview with the author, December 2005.
111. Abraham, Religion, Caste and Gender, 110.
112. Extract from the Diary of Marshall C. Balfour, 1949, RG 2, Series 464C, Box 461, Folder 3094, RF.
113. Annamma K. M. to Sister Jacob, October 24, 1963, CMC-D/24/58, Box 18, Director's Office File, Folder "Nursing Staff, Correspondence, 1958-1965," CMC Archives.
114. Postbasic Nursing Education Programmes for Foreign Students: Report of a Conference, Geneva, 5-14 October 1959, World Health Organisation Technical Report Series 199 (Geneva: WHO, 1960), 11.
115. Ibid., 37-39.
116. See, for example, "Project Implementation Order," April 17, 1961, State Department Records, USAID, RG 286, Entry 385, Box 159, Folder "Miss V. Purushotham- Indore-General Nursing FY 61," NARA; and "Project Implementation Order," April 17, 1961, State Department Records, USAID, RG 286, Entry 385, Box 159, Folder "Miss M. Sosamma-Indore-General Nursing FY 61," NARA.
117. Postbasic Nursing Education Programmes for Foreign Students, 37-45.