Informal rural economies in history

Labour/ Le Travail

Volumn , Issue 53, 2004, Pages

  Ommer, Rosemary E ^a   Turner, Nancy J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VICTORIA   (Canada)

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EID: 50349090500     PISSN: 07003862     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/25149448     Document Type: Review

References (132)

1. We choose as examples only some of the cultures with which we are familiar and for which, therefore, we can provide local detail
2. We take information to precede knowledge, in that it is reflection on how information is put together into meaningful packages that generates knowledge. By the same token, knowledge further contextualized and reflected upon may generate wisdom.
3. For example, collapsing fish stocks, poor markets for timber, unemployment, and outmigration.
4. As such, we build on the ideas first proposed in the MacNutt Lecture of 1993, subsequently published as Rosemary E. Ommer, "One Hundred Years of Fishery Crises," Acadiensis, 1 (Spring 1994), 5-20.
5. E. P. Thompson talks about them as moral economies, found in cultures in which "social intercourse and labour are intermingled and there is no great sense of conflict between labour and 'passing the time of day'," E.P. Thompson, Customs in Common: Studies in Traditional Popular Culture (New York 1991), 358.
6. Here he is citing Evans-Pritchard on the Nuer, in "Time, Work-Discipline and Industrial Capitalism," in E.P.Thompson, Customs in Common, 355.
7. Thompson, Customs in Common, 355.
8. Ommer, "One Hundred Years."
9. Indeed, the single-job, single-wage norm of the developed world for much of the 20th-century modern economy may come to be seen as a historical aberration, if the recent shift to job pluralism (for individuals and households), which is becoming a recognized component of the impact of globalization on developed economies, becomes the norm. Although this paper concentrates on rural economies, some of what is proposed here may well apply in urban settings also. In the urban case, however, job pluralism would not necessarily imply the kind of geographical relocations (transhumance) implicit in much rural occupational pluralism.
10. See, as just one example, the series of essays in Anthony P. Cohen, ed., Belonging: Identity and Social Organisation in British Rural Culture (St. John's 1982).
11. A.G. MacPherson, "An Old Highland Genealogy and the Evolution of a Scottish Clan," Scottish Studies 10 (1966), 1-43 ; A.G. MacPherson, "An Old Highland Parish Register. Survivals of Clanship and Social Change in Laggan, Inverness-shire, Part 1,1775-1854," Scottish Studies 11 (1967), 149-92; A.G. MacPherson, "An Old Highland Parish Register. Survivals of Clanship and Social Change in Laggan, Inverness-shire, Part II, 1775-1869," Scottish Studies, 11 (1968), 81-112; A.G. MacPherson, "Land Tenure, Social Structure, and Resource Use in the Scottish Highlands, 1747-1784," PhD thesis, McGill University, 1969, 376; and building on those insights, Rosemary E. Ommer, "Primitive Accumulation and the Scottish clann in the Old World and the New," Journal of Historical Geography, 12 (April 1986), 121-41.
12. A.G. MacPherson, "An Old Highland Genealogy and the Evolution of a Scottish Clan," Scottish Studies 10 (1966), 1-43 ; A.G. MacPherson, "An Old Highland Parish Register. Survivals of Clanship and Social Change in Laggan, Inverness-shire, Part 1,1775-1854," Scottish Studies 11 (1967), 149-92; A.G. MacPherson, "An Old Highland Parish Register. Survivals of Clanship and Social Change in Laggan, Inverness-shire, Part II, 1775-1869," Scottish Studies, 11 (1968), 81-112; A.G. MacPherson, "Land Tenure, Social Structure, and Resource Use in the Scottish Highlands, 1747-1784," PhD thesis, McGill University, 1969, 376; and building on those insights, Rosemary E. Ommer, "Primitive Accumulation and the Scottish clann in the Old World and the New," Journal of Historical Geography, 12 (April 1986), 121-41.
13. A.G. MacPherson, "An Old Highland Genealogy and the Evolution of a Scottish Clan," Scottish Studies 10 (1966), 1-43 ; A.G. MacPherson, "An Old Highland Parish Register. Survivals of Clanship and Social Change in Laggan, Inverness-shire, Part 1,1775-1854," Scottish Studies 11 (1967), 149-92; A.G. MacPherson, "An Old Highland Parish Register. Survivals of Clanship and Social Change in Laggan, Inverness-shire, Part II, 1775-1869," Scottish Studies, 11 (1968), 81-112; A.G. MacPherson, "Land Tenure, Social Structure, and Resource Use in the Scottish Highlands, 1747-1784," PhD thesis, McGill University, 1969, 376; and building on those insights, Rosemary E. Ommer, "Primitive Accumulation and the Scottish clann in the Old World and the New," Journal of Historical Geography, 12 (April 1986), 121-41.
14. A.G. MacPherson, "An Old Highland Genealogy and the Evolution of a Scottish Clan," Scottish Studies 10 (1966), 1-43 ; A.G. MacPherson, "An Old Highland Parish Register. Survivals of Clanship and Social Change in Laggan, Inverness-shire, Part 1,1775-1854," Scottish Studies 11 (1967), 149-92; A.G. MacPherson, "An Old Highland Parish Register. Survivals of Clanship and Social Change in Laggan, Inverness-shire, Part II, 1775-1869," Scottish Studies, 11 (1968), 81-112; A.G. MacPherson, "Land Tenure, Social Structure, and Resource Use in the Scottish Highlands, 1747-1784," PhD thesis, McGill University, 1969, 376; and building on those insights, Rosemary E. Ommer, "Primitive Accumulation and the Scottish clann in the Old World and the New," Journal of Historical Geography, 12 (April 1986), 121-41.
15. A.G. MacPherson, "An Old Highland Genealogy and the Evolution of a Scottish Clan," Scottish Studies 10 (1966), 1-43 ; A.G. MacPherson, "An Old Highland Parish Register. Survivals of Clanship and Social Change in Laggan, Inverness-shire, Part 1,1775-1854," Scottish Studies 11 (1967), 149-92; A.G. MacPherson, "An Old Highland Parish Register. Survivals of Clanship and Social Change in Laggan, Inverness-shire, Part II, 1775-1869," Scottish Studies, 11 (1968), 81-112; A.G. MacPherson, "Land Tenure, Social Structure, and Resource Use in the Scottish Highlands, 1747-1784," PhD thesis, McGill University, 1969, 376; and building on those insights, Rosemary E. Ommer, "Primitive Accumulation and the Scottish clann in the Old World and the New," Journal of Historical Geography, 12 (April 1986), 121-41.
16. The terminology is very specific. The clan proper was the whole set of families descended from one eponymous ancestor. The male children of this original ancestor became the progenitors of distinct lineages within the clan, called sliochdan. Local kin groups occupying a small part of the clan lands at any given time were termed clann (plural cloinne, from the Gaelic for children).
17. A.G. MacPherson, "Land Tenure, social structure, and resource use in the Scottish Highlands, 1747-1784," PhD thesis, McGill University, 1969, 376.
18. Karl Marx, Grundrisse (New York 1973), 495.
19. See for example Fikret Berkes, Sacred Ecology: Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Resource Management (Philadelphia 1999); and the Glenbow Museum exhibit, "Nisitapiisinni The Story of the Blackfoot People," Exhibit Guide for the Glenbow Museum, Key Porter Books (Toronto 2001).
20. See for example Fikret Berkes, Sacred Ecology: Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Resource Management (Philadelphia 1999); and the Glenbow Museum exhibit, "Nisitapiisinni The Story of the Blackfoot People," Exhibit Guide for the Glenbow Museum, Key Porter Books (Toronto 2001).
21. Nancy J. Turner and Dawn C. Loewen, "The Original 'Free Trade' : Exchange of Botanical Products and Associated Plant Knowledge in Northwestern North America," Anthropologica (1998), 49-70; Nancy J. Turner, Iain Davidson-Hunt, Michael O'Flaherty, "Ecological Edges and Cultural Edges: Diversity and Resilience of Traditional Knowledge Systems," Human Ecology, 31 (September 2003), 439-63.
22. Nancy J. Turner and Dawn C. Loewen, "The Original 'Free Trade' : Exchange of Botanical Products and Associated Plant Knowledge in Northwestern North America," Anthropologica (1998), 49-70; Nancy J. Turner, Iain Davidson-Hunt, Michael O'Flaherty, "Ecological Edges and Cultural Edges: Diversity and Resilience of Traditional Knowledge Systems," Human Ecology, 31 (September 2003), 439-63.
23. Dolly Watts, "Trading for food among the North Coastal First Nations," Cuisine Canada: Good Cheer/Bon Temps, 3 (January 1997), 1.
24. Nancy J. Turner and James T. Jones, "Occupying the Land: Traditional Patterns of Land and Resource Ownership among First Peoples of British Columbia," paper presented at the IASCP (Common Property Resources) Conference, June 2000, Bloomington, Indiana.
25. W. Suttles, Coast Salish Essays (Vancouver and Seattle 1987), 15-25; Susan Marsden, compiler, No Amwaaltga Ts'msiyeen The Tsimshian, Trade, and the Northwest Coast Economy (Prince Rupert 1992), 36, 59, 75.
26. W. Suttles, Coast Salish Essays (Vancouver and Seattle 1987), 15-25; Susan Marsden, compiler, No Amwaaltga Ts'msiyeen The Tsimshian, Trade, and the Northwest Coast Economy (Prince Rupert 1992), 36, 59, 75.
27. Nancy J. Turner, Laurence C. Thompson, M. Terry Thompson, and Annie Z. York, "Thompson Ethnobotany : Knowledge and Usage of Plants by the Thompson Indians of British Columbia," Royal British Columbia Museum, Memoir No. 3 (1990).
28. W. Suttles, Coast Salish Essays, 15-25.
29. Evidence for the official nature of the traditional economic system is provided by Kwakwaka'wakw historian and language specialist Dr. Daisy Sewid-Smith who elaborated on the value of mountain-goat furs in her traditional culture. They were "coveted by all the tribal groups.... We called these hides p'ílxalasg'm because it's so white.p'tta la means 'fog,' so it actually means 'fog mat or garment'.... And so when Hudson's Bay ... started coming out with their Hudson's Bay blankets to take the fur off our hands, our people named those Hudson's Bay blankets p'ílxalasg'm, [the] same name as the mountain goat fur, because it was equivalent to the mountain goat fur as trade;... it was used actually for cash. Like, a canoe might be worth a thousand mountain goat fur. And that's how our people purchased things with it...." Daisy Sewid-Smith (Mayanilh), Chief Adam Dick (Kwaxsistala), and Nancy J. Turner, "The Sacred Cedar Tree of the Kwakwaka'wakw People," in Marsha Bol, ed., "Stars Above, Earth Below: Native Americans and Nature," Background Book for Alocoa Foundation Hall of Native Americans, Exhibit, The Carnegie Museum of Natural History (1998), 189-209.
30. Plants and plant products have always been an important part of this informal economy. Sometimes produce was exchanged directly; sometimes money was involved. A number of plant foods were valued highly in this system, and their exchange equivalents were carefully calculated and widely known. For example, bitterroot (Lewisia redivivva) was noted as being "expensive stuff by Nlaka'pamux elder Annie York, who said that a 1.5-m string of dried bitterroot would be worth about one salmon in the early part of the 20th century. In the late 19th century, James Teit found that "ten bundles" of bitterroot could be exchanged for one large, dressed buckskin. Similarly, ten cakes of saskatoon berries could be exchanged for one large buckskin. Indian-hemp (Apocynum cannabinum), a fibre plant used for cordage, fishline and fishnets, was also widely traded; the value of this plant was indicated by James A. Teit, in "The Thompson Indians of British Columbia, Jesup North Pacific Expedition," Memoir Vol. 1, Part 4, American Museum of Natural History (New York 1900), 261. He recorded that items for which five "packages" of the fibre could be exchanged included one large cedar-root basket, two salmon-skins full of salmon-oil, three sticks of salmon, one large dressed buckskin, one steel trap, or one canoe. Basketry "grasses" were also highly valued. Bear-grass (Xerophyllum tenax), for example, was a major item of export from the Makah and other peoples of the Olympic Peninsula to Vancouver Island. Recently, a small (about 2.5-cm, or 1-inch) bundle of bear-grass leaves, processed for weaving, could bring a price of $.50 or $1.00, or more. Nancy J. Turner, John Thomas, Barry F. Carlson, and Robert T. Ogilvie, "Ethnobotany of the Nitinaht Indians of Vancouver Island," British Columbia Provincial Museum Occasional Paper No. 24 (1983).
31. Plants and plant products have always been an important part of this informal economy. Sometimes produce was exchanged directly; sometimes money was involved. A number of plant foods were valued highly in this system, and their exchange equivalents were carefully calculated and widely known. For example, bitterroot (Lewisia redivivva) was noted as being "expensive stuff by Nlaka'pamux elder Annie York, who said that a 1.5-m string of dried bitterroot would be worth about one salmon in the early part of the 20th century. In the late 19th century, James Teit found that "ten bundles" of bitterroot could be exchanged for one large, dressed buckskin. Similarly, ten cakes of saskatoon berries could be exchanged for one large buckskin. Indian-hemp (Apocynum cannabinum), a fibre plant used for cordage, fishline and fishnets, was also widely traded; the value of this plant was indicated by James A. Teit, in "The Thompson Indians of British Columbia, Jesup North Pacific Expedition," Memoir Vol. 1, Part 4, American Museum of Natural History (New York 1900), 261. He recorded that items for which five "packages" of the fibre could be exchanged included one large cedar-root basket, two salmon-skins full of salmon-oil, three sticks of salmon, one large dressed buckskin, one steel trap, or one canoe. Basketry "grasses" were also highly valued. Bear-grass (Xerophyllum tenax), for example, was a major item of export from the Makah and other peoples of the Olympic Peninsula to Vancouver Island. Recently, a small (about 2.5-cm, or 1-inch) bundle of bear-grass leaves, processed for weaving, could bring a price of $.50 or $1.00, or more. Nancy J. Turner, John Thomas, Barry F. Carlson, and Robert T. Ogilvie, "Ethnobotany of the Nitinaht Indians of Vancouver Island," British Columbia Provincial Museum Occasional Paper No. 24 (1983).
32. W. Suttles, Coast Salish Essays, 15-25.
33. Nancy J. Turner, John Thomas, Barry F. Carlson, and Robert T. Ogilvie, "Ethnobotany of the Nitinaht Indians of Vancouver Island." British Columbia Provincial Museum Occasional Paper No. 24 (1983).
34. W. Suttles; Coast Salish Essays, 25. For example, James Teit, "The Lillooet Indians, Jesup North Pacific Expedition," American Museum of Natural History Memoir, 2 (1906), 232, noted that the Lower Stl'atl'imx, when trading with the Sechelt, Squamish, and Comox Coast Salish at Jervis Inlet or Howe Sound, "were allowed to pick berries, and to hunt and fish, as much as they liked."
35. W. Suttles; Coast Salish Essays, 25. For example, James Teit, "The Lillooet Indians, Jesup North Pacific Expedition," American Museum of Natural History Memoir, 2 (1906), 232, noted that the Lower Stl'atl'imx, when trading with the Sechelt, Squamish, and Comox Coast Salish at Jervis Inlet or Howe Sound, "were allowed to pick berries, and to hunt and fish, as much as they liked."
36. Margaret Ormsby, A Pioneer Gentlewoman in British Columbia: The Recollections of Susan Allison (Vancouver 1976), 39.
37. Nancy J. Turner, "Dans une Hotte. L'importance de la vannerie das l'Économie des peuples chasseurs-pêcheurs-cueilleurs du Nord-Ouest de L'Amérique du Nord" ("Into a Basket Carried on the Back: Importance of Basketry in Foraging/Hunting/Fishing Economies in Northwestern North America"), Anthropologie et Sociétiés, 20 (Winter 1996), 55-84.
38. C.J. Jaenen, "Amerindian views of French culture in the Seventeenth Century," in R. Fisher and K. Coates, eds., Out of the Background: Readings on Canadian Native History, (Toronto 1988), 121.
39. Gerard Gold, ed., Minorities and Mother Country Imagery (St. John's 1984).
40. Saami Organizations, Sources of Livelihood (2001). Http://virtual. finland.fi/finfo/english/minorit3.html
41. David S. Landes, Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World (Cambridge, Massachusetts 1983), 286-7. See also Miriam Pollard, The Listening God (Delaware, Maryland 1989), 56 - who says that the world's time is "seasons, morning, noons and nights" which we, however, have "jammed into a row of mental cages and locked their doors."
42. David S. Landes, Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World (Cambridge, Massachusetts 1983), 286-7. See also Miriam Pollard, The Listening God (Delaware, Maryland 1989), 56 - who says that the world's time is "seasons, morning, noons and nights" which we, however, have "jammed into a row of mental cages and locked their doors."
43. E.P. Thompson, Customs in Common, 359.
44. E.P. Thompson, Customs in Common, 358. See also George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago 1980). There were exceptions, however. The case of Denmark is instructive. That country built its economic development, not on machine technology in which it could not hope to compete, but on the market niche (as we would term it today) of relatively small-scale agriculture aimed at the marketplaces of the surrounding industrialising nations. This allowed (and, indeed, required) Denmark to develop an economy in which employment and education allowed for harvesting and the time requirements of the agricultural year. Sidney Pollard, Peaceful Conquest. The Industrialisation of Europe 1760-1970 (Oxford 1981); Carlo M. Cippola, ed., The Emergence of Industrial Societies - 2. Fontana Economic History of Europe Series (Glasgow 1979).
45. E.P. Thompson, Customs in Common, 358. See also George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago 1980). There were exceptions, however. The case of Denmark is instructive. That country built its economic development, not on machine technology in which it could not hope to compete, but on the market niche (as we would term it today) of relatively small-scale agriculture aimed at the marketplaces of the surrounding industrialising nations. This allowed (and, indeed, required) Denmark to develop an economy in which employment and education allowed for harvesting and the time requirements of the agricultural year. Sidney Pollard, Peaceful Conquest. The Industrialisation of Europe 1760-1970 (Oxford 1981); Carlo M. Cippola, ed., The Emergence of Industrial Societies - 2. Fontana Economic History of Europe Series (Glasgow 1979).
46. E.P. Thompson, Customs in Common, 358. See also George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago 1980). There were exceptions, however. The case of Denmark is instructive. That country built its economic development, not on machine technology in which it could not hope to compete, but on the market niche (as we would term it today) of relatively small-scale agriculture aimed at the marketplaces of the surrounding industrialising nations. This allowed (and, indeed, required) Denmark to develop an economy in which employment and education allowed for harvesting and the time requirements of the agricultural year. Sidney Pollard, Peaceful Conquest. The Industrialisation of Europe 1760-1970 (Oxford 1981); Carlo M. Cippola, ed., The Emergence of Industrial Societies - 2. Fontana Economic History of Europe Series (Glasgow 1979).
47. E.P. Thompson, Customs in Common, 358. See also George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago 1980). There were exceptions, however. The case of Denmark is instructive. That country built its economic development, not on machine technology in which it could not hope to compete, but on the market niche (as we would term it today) of relatively small-scale agriculture aimed at the marketplaces of the surrounding industrialising nations. This allowed (and, indeed, required) Denmark to develop an economy in which employment and education allowed for harvesting and the time requirements of the agricultural year. Sidney Pollard, Peaceful Conquest. The Industrialisation of Europe 1760-1970 (Oxford 1981); Carlo M. Cippola, ed., The Emergence of Industrial Societies - 2. Fontana Economic History of Europe Series (Glasgow 1979).
48. Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation (Boston 1957), 41.
49. It is no accident of language that today we speak of "human resources," "intellectual capital," "intellectual property," and the like.
50. Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation, 41.
51. E.P. Thompson, Customs in Common, 358.
52. Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation, 37.
53. Unlike the "argument from Darwin" which, while much beloved by corporate ideologues, misunderstands Darwinian natural selection. In fact, the natural world displays a nice balance between competition and collaboration, and Darwin points to the importance of variation for survival - a range of evolutionary strategies which will allow survival of those who develop the best strategy. Not only is this "social Darwinist" attitude scientifically incorrect, it is also scientifically naïve to extend the functioning of the animal kingdom to the human species, given the significant differences between them. In this respect, it is worth pondering the tendency these days to argue for specific rights without equal attention being paid to their reciprocal responsibilities. Even human rights, when thought of on an individualistic basis can become competitive rather than collaborative.
54. See, to cite just a very few classic studies, Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation; Peter Mathias, The First Industrial Nation. An Economic History of Britain 1700-1914 (1969; London 1980); David S. Landes, The Unbound Prometheus (Cambridge 1969); Sidney Pollard, Peaceful Conquest (Oxford 1981); Phyllis Deane, The First Industrial Revolution (Cambridge 1969); E.P. Thompson, Whigs and Hunters: The Origin of the Black Act (London and New York 1968); E.P. Thompson, Customs in Common; J.M. Neeson, "The Opponents of Enclosure in Eighteenth Century Northamptonshire," Past and Present, 105(1984), 117-131.
55. See, to cite just a very few classic studies, Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation; Peter Mathias, The First Industrial Nation. An Economic History of Britain 1700-1914 (1969; London 1980); David S. Landes, The Unbound Prometheus (Cambridge 1969); Sidney Pollard, Peaceful Conquest (Oxford 1981); Phyllis Deane, The First Industrial Revolution (Cambridge 1969); E.P. Thompson, Whigs and Hunters: The Origin of the Black Act (London and New York 1968); E.P. Thompson, Customs in Common; J.M. Neeson, "The Opponents of Enclosure in Eighteenth Century Northamptonshire," Past and Present, 105(1984), 117-131.
56. See, to cite just a very few classic studies, Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation; Peter Mathias, The First Industrial Nation. An Economic History of Britain 1700-1914 (1969; London 1980); David S. Landes, The Unbound Prometheus (Cambridge 1969); Sidney Pollard, Peaceful Conquest (Oxford 1981); Phyllis Deane, The First Industrial Revolution (Cambridge 1969); E.P. Thompson, Whigs and Hunters: The Origin of the Black Act (London and New York 1968); E.P. Thompson, Customs in Common; J.M. Neeson, "The Opponents of Enclosure in Eighteenth Century Northamptonshire," Past and Present, 105(1984), 117-131.
57. See, to cite just a very few classic studies, Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation; Peter Mathias, The First Industrial Nation. An Economic History of Britain 1700-1914 (1969; London 1980); David S. Landes, The Unbound Prometheus (Cambridge 1969); Sidney Pollard, Peaceful Conquest (Oxford 1981); Phyllis Deane, The First Industrial Revolution (Cambridge 1969); E.P. Thompson, Whigs and Hunters: The Origin of the Black Act (London and New York 1968); E.P. Thompson, Customs in Common; J.M. Neeson, "The Opponents of Enclosure in Eighteenth Century Northamptonshire," Past and Present, 105(1984), 117-131.
58. See, to cite just a very few classic studies, Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation; Peter Mathias, The First Industrial Nation. An Economic History of Britain 1700-1914 (1969; London 1980); David S. Landes, The Unbound Prometheus (Cambridge 1969); Sidney Pollard, Peaceful Conquest (Oxford 1981); Phyllis Deane, The First Industrial Revolution (Cambridge 1969); E.P. Thompson, Whigs and Hunters: The Origin of the Black Act (London and New York 1968); E.P. Thompson, Customs in Common; J.M. Neeson, "The Opponents of Enclosure in Eighteenth Century Northamptonshire," Past and Present, 105(1984), 117-131.
59. See, to cite just a very few classic studies, Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation; Peter Mathias, The First Industrial Nation. An Economic History of Britain 1700-1914 (1969; London 1980); David S. Landes, The Unbound Prometheus (Cambridge 1969); Sidney Pollard, Peaceful Conquest (Oxford 1981); Phyllis Deane, The First Industrial Revolution (Cambridge 1969); E.P. Thompson, Whigs and Hunters: The Origin of the Black Act (London and New York 1968); E.P. Thompson, Customs in Common; J.M. Neeson, "The Opponents of Enclosure in Eighteenth Century Northamptonshire," Past and Present, 105(1984), 117-131.
60. See, to cite just a very few classic studies, Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation; Peter Mathias, The First Industrial Nation. An Economic History of Britain 1700-1914 (1969; London 1980); David S. Landes, The Unbound Prometheus (Cambridge 1969); Sidney Pollard, Peaceful Conquest (Oxford 1981); Phyllis Deane, The First Industrial Revolution (Cambridge 1969); E.P. Thompson, Whigs and Hunters: The Origin of the Black Act (London and New York 1968); E.P. Thompson, Customs in Common; J.M. Neeson, "The Opponents of Enclosure in Eighteenth Century Northamptonshire," Past and Present, 105(1984), 117-131.
61. E.P. Thompson, Customs in Common.
62. Nancy J. Turner, M.B. Ignace, and R. Ignace, "Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Wisdom of Aboriginal Peoples in British Columbia," Ecological Applications, 10 (October 2000), 1275-87.
63. Janice Reid Boland, "Living Under One Roof: Household Economies in the Bay of Islands, Newfoundland," MA thesis, Department of History, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 2001.
64. E.P. Thompson, Customs in Common, 364.
65. E.P. Thompson, Customs in Common, 386.
66. E.P. Thompson, Customs in Common, 387 citing E.S.Furniss, The Position of the Laborer in a System of Nationalism (Boston 1920).
67. E.P. Thompson, Customs in Common, 387 citing E.S.Furniss, The Position of the Laborer in a System of Nationalism (Boston 1920).
68. E.P. Thompson, Customs in Common, 387.
69. In this context, the term "cottage industry" is not only about size of firm, but also about custom and practice.
70. Earl Maquinna George, "Living on the Edge: Nuu-Hah-Nulth History from an Ahousaht Chiefs Perspective," MA thesis, University of Victoria, 1994.
71. E.P. Thompson, Whigs and Hunters.
72. Hartwell Bowsfield, ed., Forf Victoria Letters, 1846-1851 (Winnipeg 1979), 169-71.
73. Hartwell Bowsfield, ed., Fort Victoria Letters, xix.
74. Jessie Ann Smith, Widow Smith of Spence's Bridge, edited by Murphy Shewchuk (Merritt, British Columbia 1989), 32.
75. Adam Dick, personal communication to Nancy Turner, 1999.
76. Arthur Adolph, Xaxl'ep Nation, personal communication to Nancy Turner, 2000.
77. Mary Thomas, personal communication to Nancy Turner, 1995.
78. Sylvia V Olsen, "We Indians Were Sure Hard Workers: A History of Coast Salish Wool Working," MA thesis, University of Victoria, 1998.
79. Personal communication to Nancy Turner, 1984 by Margaret Siwallace, Nuxalk Nation.
80. Nancy J. Turner, Iain J. Davidson-Hunt, and Michael O'Flaherty, "Ecological Edges and Cultural Edges: Diversity and Resilience of Traditional Knowledge Systems," Human Ecology, 31 (September 2003), 439-63.
81. Nancy J. Turner, "The Ethnobotany of 'Edible Seaweed' (Porphyra abbottae Rrishnamurthy and related species; Rhodophyta; Bangiales) and its use by First Nations on the Pacific Coast of Canada," Canadian Journal of Botany, 81 (September 2003), 283-93.
82. Fikret Berkes, Sacred Ecology: Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Resource Management (Philadelphia 1999).
83. The literature is rich, but see, for synopsis, the 1986 Newfoundland Royal Commission on Employment and Unemployment. For detailed examination of the way of life and economy in two locations on the coast, see Rosemary E. Ommer, "Merchant Credit and the Informal Economy: Newfoundland, 1919-1929," Canadian Historical Association, Historical Papers, (1989), 167-89.
84. H.C. Brookfield, Colonialism, Development and Dependence. The case of the Melanesian Islands in the South Pacific (Cambridge 1972), 1-19. Melanesia is a Polynesian example - cargo cults and colonial staple economies have a great deal in common. The literature in anthropology, cultural geography and sociology is vast. See, for example, Hugh Brody, Inishkillane: Change and Decline in the West of Ireland (London 1973) and The Other Side of Eden: Hunters, Farmers and the Shaping of the World (Vancouver 2000) for Ireland and Canada.
85. H.C. Brookfield, Colonialism, Development and Dependence. The case of the Melanesian Islands in the South Pacific (Cambridge 1972), 1-19. Melanesia is a Polynesian example - cargo cults and colonial staple economies have a great deal in common. The literature in anthropology, cultural geography and sociology is vast. See, for example, Hugh Brody, Inishkillane: Change and Decline in the West of Ireland (London 1973) and The Other Side of Eden: Hunters, Farmers and the Shaping of the World (Vancouver 2000) for Ireland and Canada.
86. H.C. Brookfield, Colonialism, Development and Dependence. The case of the Melanesian Islands in the South Pacific (Cambridge 1972), 1-19. Melanesia is a Polynesian example - cargo cults and colonial staple economies have a great deal in common. The literature in anthropology, cultural geography and sociology is vast. See, for example, Hugh Brody, Inishkillane: Change and Decline in the West of Ireland (London 1973) and The Other Side of Eden: Hunters, Farmers and the Shaping of the World (Vancouver 2000) for Ireland and Canada.
87. See, for example, Ernst, Clarke, Taylor, Nobles, and Vickers for New England, Nicholls for Virginia, and Ommer, Thornton, Anderson, Hiller, Lewis, and Macdonald for various parts of the Newfoundland economy. All are in Rosemary E. Ommer, ed., Merchant Credit and Labour Strategies in Historical Perspective (Fredericton 1990).
88. See the overviews in such standard textbooks as L.D. McCann, ed., Heartland and Hinterland: A Geography of Canada 3rd ed. (Toronto 1982) and Richard Cole Harris and John Warkentin, Canada before Confederation: A Study in Historical Geography (New York 1974).
89. See the overviews in such standard textbooks as L.D. McCann, ed., Heartland and Hinterland: A Geography of Canada 3rd ed. (Toronto 1982) and Richard Cole Harris and John Warkentin, Canada before Confederation: A Study in Historical Geography (New York 1974).
90. H.C. Brookfield, Colonialism, Development and Dependence: The Case of the Melanesian Islands in the South Pacific (Cambridge 1972). But see, for example, pages 9-17 for a close argument about the value of peasant societies and the possibility of their integration into colonial (and post-colonial) societies in a positive, rather than destructive, manner.
91. Ottar Brox, Newfoundland Fishermen in the Age of Industry (St. John's 1972); Rosemary E. Ommer, From Outpost to Outport: A Structural Analysis of the Jersey-Gaspé Cod Fishery, 1767-1886 (Montreal and Kingston 1991); J.J. Mannion, The Peopling of Newfoundland: Essays in Historical Geography (Toronto 1977); Hugh Brody, The Other Side of Eden.
92. Ottar Brox, Newfoundland Fishermen in the Age of Industry (St. John's 1972); Rosemary E. Ommer, From Outpost to Outport: A Structural Analysis of the Jersey-Gaspé Cod Fishery, 1767-1886 (Montreal and Kingston 1991); J.J. Mannion, The Peopling of Newfoundland: Essays in Historical Geography (Toronto 1977); Hugh Brody, The Other Side of Eden.
93. Ottar Brox, Newfoundland Fishermen in the Age of Industry (St. John's 1972); Rosemary E. Ommer, From Outpost to Outport: A Structural Analysis of the Jersey-Gaspé Cod Fishery, 1767-1886 (Montreal and Kingston 1991); J.J. Mannion, The Peopling of Newfoundland: Essays in Historical Geography (Toronto 1977); Hugh Brody, The Other Side of Eden.
94. Ottar Brox, Newfoundland Fishermen in the Age of Industry (St. John's 1972); Rosemary E. Ommer, From Outpost to Outport: A Structural Analysis of the Jersey-Gaspé Cod Fishery, 1767-1886 (Montreal and Kingston 1991); J.J. Mannion, The Peopling of Newfoundland: Essays in Historical Geography (Toronto 1977); Hugh Brody, The Other Side of Eden.
95. Sean Cadigan, "The Moral Economy of the Commons: Ecology and Equity in the Newfoundland Cod Fishery, 1815-1855," Labour/Le Travail, 43 (Spring 1999), 11, and Rosemary E. Ommer, "Merchant Credit and the Informal Economy" for a detailed discussion of this in Bonavista and elsewhere in Newfoundland.
96. Sean Cadigan, "The Moral Economy of the Commons: Ecology and Equity in the Newfoundland Cod Fishery, 1815-1855," Labour/Le Travail, 43 (Spring 1999), 11, and Rosemary E. Ommer, "Merchant Credit and the Informal Economy" for a detailed discussion of this in Bonavista and elsewhere in Newfoundland.
97. For detailed discussion see Rosemary E. Ommer, "Merchant Credit and the Informal Economy," and Rosemary E. Ommer, From Outpost to Outport.
98. For detailed discussion see Rosemary E. Ommer, "Merchant Credit and the Informal Economy," and Rosemary E. Ommer, From Outpost to Outport.
99. Rosemary E. Ommer, ed., Merchant Credit and Labour Strategies (Fredericton 1990), 14-15; Rosemary E. Ommer and Peter R. Sinclair, "Systemic Crisis in Rural Newfoundland: Can the Outports Survive?" in John T. Pierce and Ann Dale, eds., Communities, Development and Sustainability across Canada (Vancouver 1999), 52.
100. Rosemary E. Ommer, ed., Merchant Credit and Labour Strategies (Fredericton 1990), 14-15; Rosemary E. Ommer and Peter R. Sinclair, "Systemic Crisis in Rural Newfoundland: Can the Outports Survive?" in John T. Pierce and Ann Dale, eds., Communities, Development and Sustainability across Canada (Vancouver 1999), 52.
101. Rosemary E. Ommer, "Merchant Credit and the Informal Economy," 167-189; Patricia A. Thornton, "Dynamic Equilibrium: Settlement, Population, and Ecology in the Strait of Belle Isle, Newfoundland, 1840-1940," PhD thesis, University of Aberdeen, 1979.
102. Rosemary E. Ommer, "Merchant Credit and the Informal Economy," 167-189; Patricia A. Thornton, "Dynamic Equilibrium: Settlement, Population, and Ecology in the Strait of Belle Isle, Newfoundland, 1840-1940," PhD thesis, University of Aberdeen, 1979.
103. Rosemary E. Ommer and Peter R. Sinclair, "Systemic Crises in Rural Newfoundland," 52-3.
104. For a recent detailed history of Newfoundland from this perspective, see Sean Cadigan, "The Moral Economy of the Commons," and "The Moral Economy of Retrenchment and Regeneration in the History of Rural Newfoundland," in Reginald Byron, ed., Retrenchment and Regeneration in Rural Newfoundland (Toronto 2002), 14-42.
105. We use the term modernization here with some hesitation to refer to the development of industrial capitalism in the formal economy and to institutional changes such as mass public education, democratic political representation, and urbanization. We do not wish to imply, as was common in the 1950s and 1960s, that "good" successfully developed societies were those that became modem like the USA. The concept was also associated with a tendency to see the social and economic systems in a dualist way - traditional and modern sectors with little interconnection.
106. Melvin M. Firestone, Brothers and Rivals: Patrilocality in Savage Cove (St. John's 1967); James Paris, Cat Harbour: A Newfoundland Fishing Settlement (St. John's 1972); Tom Philbrook, Fisherman, Logger, Merchant, Miner: Social Change and Industrialization in Three Newfoundland Communities (St. John's 1966); Louis J. Chiaramonte, Craftsman-Client Contracts: Interpersonal Relations in a Newfoundland Fishing Community (St. John's 1970); Ottar Brox, Newfoundland Fishermen; Cato Wadel, Marginal Adaptations and Modernizatin in Newfoundland (St. John's 1969); Thomas Nemec, "I Fish With My Brother: The Structure and Behaviour of Agnatic-Based Fishing Crews in a Newfoundland Irish Outport," in Raoul R. Anderson and Cato Wadel, eds., North Atlantic Fishermen: Anthropological Essays on Modern Fishing (St. John's 1972).
107. Melvin M. Firestone, Brothers and Rivals: Patrilocality in Savage Cove (St. John's 1967); James Paris, Cat Harbour: A Newfoundland Fishing Settlement (St. John's 1972); Tom Philbrook, Fisherman, Logger, Merchant, Miner: Social Change and Industrialization in Three Newfoundland Communities (St. John's 1966); Louis J. Chiaramonte, Craftsman-Client Contracts: Interpersonal Relations in a Newfoundland Fishing Community (St. John's 1970); Ottar Brox, Newfoundland Fishermen; Cato Wadel, Marginal Adaptations and Modernizatin in Newfoundland (St. John's 1969); Thomas Nemec, "I Fish With My Brother: The Structure and Behaviour of Agnatic-Based Fishing Crews in a Newfoundland Irish Outport," in Raoul R. Anderson and Cato Wadel, eds., North Atlantic Fishermen: Anthropological Essays on Modern Fishing (St. John's 1972).
108. Melvin M. Firestone, Brothers and Rivals: Patrilocality in Savage Cove (St. John's 1967); James Paris, Cat Harbour: A Newfoundland Fishing Settlement (St. John's 1972); Tom Philbrook, Fisherman, Logger, Merchant, Miner: Social Change and Industrialization in Three Newfoundland Communities (St. John's 1966); Louis J. Chiaramonte, Craftsman-Client Contracts: Interpersonal Relations in a Newfoundland Fishing Community (St. John's 1970); Ottar Brox, Newfoundland Fishermen; Cato Wadel, Marginal Adaptations and Modernizatin in Newfoundland (St. John's 1969); Thomas Nemec, "I Fish With My Brother: The Structure and Behaviour of Agnatic-Based Fishing Crews in a Newfoundland Irish Outport," in Raoul R. Anderson and Cato Wadel, eds., North Atlantic Fishermen: Anthropological Essays on Modern Fishing (St. John's 1972).
109. Melvin M. Firestone, Brothers and Rivals: Patrilocality in Savage Cove (St. John's 1967); James Paris, Cat Harbour: A Newfoundland Fishing Settlement (St. John's 1972); Tom Philbrook, Fisherman, Logger, Merchant, Miner: Social Change and Industrialization in Three Newfoundland Communities (St. John's 1966); Louis J. Chiaramonte, Craftsman-Client Contracts: Interpersonal Relations in a Newfoundland Fishing Community (St. John's 1970); Ottar Brox, Newfoundland Fishermen; Cato Wadel, Marginal Adaptations and Modernizatin in Newfoundland (St. John's 1969); Thomas Nemec, "I Fish With My Brother: The Structure and Behaviour of Agnatic-Based Fishing Crews in a Newfoundland Irish Outport," in Raoul R. Anderson and Cato Wadel, eds., North Atlantic Fishermen: Anthropological Essays on Modern Fishing (St. John's 1972).
110. Melvin M. Firestone, Brothers and Rivals: Patrilocality in Savage Cove (St. John's 1967); James Paris, Cat Harbour: A Newfoundland Fishing Settlement (St. John's 1972); Tom Philbrook, Fisherman, Logger, Merchant, Miner: Social Change and Industrialization in Three Newfoundland Communities (St. John's 1966); Louis J. Chiaramonte, Craftsman-Client Contracts: Interpersonal Relations in a Newfoundland Fishing Community (St. John's 1970); Ottar Brox, Newfoundland Fishermen; Cato Wadel, Marginal Adaptations and Modernizatin in Newfoundland (St. John's 1969); Thomas Nemec, "I Fish With My Brother: The Structure and Behaviour of Agnatic-Based Fishing Crews in a Newfoundland Irish Outport," in Raoul R. Anderson and Cato Wadel, eds., North Atlantic Fishermen: Anthropological Essays on Modern Fishing (St. John's 1972).
111. Melvin M. Firestone, Brothers and Rivals: Patrilocality in Savage Cove (St. John's 1967); James Paris, Cat Harbour: A Newfoundland Fishing Settlement (St. John's 1972); Tom Philbrook, Fisherman, Logger, Merchant, Miner: Social Change and Industrialization in Three Newfoundland Communities (St. John's 1966); Louis J. Chiaramonte, Craftsman-Client Contracts: Interpersonal Relations in a Newfoundland Fishing Community (St. John's 1970); Ottar Brox, Newfoundland Fishermen; Cato Wadel, Marginal Adaptations and Modernizatin in Newfoundland (St. John's 1969); Thomas Nemec, "I Fish With My Brother: The Structure and Behaviour of Agnatic-Based Fishing Crews in a Newfoundland Irish Outport," in Raoul R. Anderson and Cato Wadel, eds., North Atlantic Fishermen: Anthropological Essays on Modern Fishing (St. John's 1972).
112. The term refers to production of goods for sale based on household ownership of the means of production and the utilization of household labour. Peter R. Sinclair, From Traps to Draggers: Domestic Commodity Production in Northwest Newfoundland, 1850-1982 (St. John's 1985).
113. Rosemary E. Ommer and Peter R. Sinclair, "Systemic Crisis in Rural Newfoundland," 59-61.
114. Rosemary E. Ommer, "Sustainability in a Cold-ocean Coastal Environment." Final Report of the Eco-research Project (St. John's 1998); Rosemary E. Ommer, ed., The Resilient Outport (St. John's 2002).
115. Rosemary E. Ommer, "Sustainability in a Cold-ocean Coastal Environment." Final Report of the Eco-research Project (St. John's 1998); Rosemary E. Ommer, ed., The Resilient Outport (St. John's 2002).
116. Rosemary E. Ommer, "Sustainability in a Cold-ocean Coastal Environment."
117. For a rather pessimistic analysis of the impact of globalization on rural communities, see Rosemary E. Ommer, "Nature and Community in the Global Market," in David J. Hawkin, ed., The Twenty-First Century Confronts its Gods: Globalization, Technology and War (New York 2004) in press.
118. Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation, 33.
119. Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation, 37
120. We are grateful to one anonymous reader for making this point to us, and for us, and we take the liberty of using it here.
121. See www.mta.ca/rstp/pubmain.html for a list of publications which deal specifically with sustainable small communities in Canada.
122. See, for example, Commission of Government, The Amulree Report: Report of the Commission of Enquiry Investigating the Seaflsheries of Newfoundland and Labrador Other than the Sealfishery (St. John's 1937); Government of Newfoundland and Labrador, Building on our Strengths: Final Report of the Royal Commission on Employment and Unemployment (St. John's 1986); Rosemary E. Ommer, "One Hundred Years"; Rosemary E. Ommer et al., Sustainability of Communities of Fish and Fishers on the Bonavista Peninsula, Newfoundland (St. John's 1999).
123. See, for example, Commission of Government, The Amulree Report: Report of the Commission of Enquiry Investigating the Seaflsheries of Newfoundland and Labrador Other than the Sealfishery (St. John's 1937); Government of Newfoundland and Labrador, Building on our Strengths: Final Report of the Royal Commission on Employment and Unemployment (St. John's 1986); Rosemary E. Ommer, "One Hundred Years"; Rosemary E. Ommer et al., Sustainability of Communities of Fish and Fishers on the Bonavista Peninsula, Newfoundland (St. John's 1999).
124. See, for example, Commission of Government, The Amulree Report: Report of the Commission of Enquiry Investigating the Seaflsheries of Newfoundland and Labrador Other than the Sealfishery (St. John's 1937); Government of Newfoundland and Labrador, Building on our Strengths: Final Report of the Royal Commission on Employment and Unemployment (St. John's 1986); Rosemary E. Ommer, "One Hundred Years"; Rosemary E. Ommer et al., Sustainability of Communities of Fish and Fishers on the Bonavista Peninsula, Newfoundland (St. John's 1999).
125. See, for example, Commission of Government, The Amulree Report: Report of the Commission of Enquiry Investigating the Seaflsheries of Newfoundland and Labrador Other than the Sealfishery (St. John's 1937); Government of Newfoundland and Labrador, Building on our Strengths: Final Report of the Royal Commission on Employment and Unemployment (St. John's 1986); Rosemary E. Ommer, "One Hundred Years"; Rosemary E. Ommer et al., Sustainability of Communities of Fish and Fishers on the Bonavista Peninsula, Newfoundland (St. John's 1999).
126. See, for example, Government ofNewfoundland and Labrador, Building on our Strengths; Rosemary E. Ommer, "One Hundred Years"; Peter R. Sinclair, ed., A Question of Survival (St. John's 1988); Patricia A. Thornton, "Dynamic Equilibrium: Settlement, Population and Ecology in the Strait of Belle Isle, Newfoundland, 1840-1940," among others.
127. See, for example, Government ofNewfoundland and Labrador, Building on our Strengths; Rosemary E. Ommer, "One Hundred Years"; Peter R. Sinclair, ed., A Question of Survival (St. John's 1988); Patricia A. Thornton, "Dynamic Equilibrium: Settlement, Population and Ecology in the Strait of Belle Isle, Newfoundland, 1840-1940," among others.
128. See, for example, Government ofNewfoundland and Labrador, Building on our Strengths; Rosemary E. Ommer, "One Hundred Years"; Peter R. Sinclair, ed., A Question of Survival (St. John's 1988); Patricia A. Thornton, "Dynamic Equilibrium: Settlement, Population and Ecology in the Strait of Belle Isle, Newfoundland, 1840-1940," among others.
129. See, for example, Government ofNewfoundland and Labrador, Building on our Strengths; Rosemary E. Ommer, "One Hundred Years"; Peter R. Sinclair, ed., A Question of Survival (St. John's 1988); Patricia A. Thornton, "Dynamic Equilibrium: Settlement, Population and Ecology in the Strait of Belle Isle, Newfoundland, 1840-1940," among others.
130. E.P. Thompson, The Making of the English WorkingClass (London and New York 1968).
131. E.P. Thompson, Customs in Common, 100-84.
132. Hugh Brody, The Other Side of Eden, 146.