How do buildings mean? Some issues of interpretation in the history of architecture

History and Theory

Volumn 45, Issue 2, 2006, Pages 153-177

  Whyte, William ^a  

^a ST JOHN S COLLEGE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 50049103048     PISSN: 00182656     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2303.2006.00355.x     Document Type: Article

References (187)

1. Juan Pablo Bonta, Architecture and Its Interpretation: A Study of Expressive Systems in Architecture (London: Lund Humphries, 1979), 232
2. Quoted in Andrew Ballantyne, "The Pillar and the Fire," in What is Architecture?, ed. Andrew Ballantyne (London and New York: Routledge, 2002), 7
3. Umberto Eco, "Function and Sign: The Semiotics of Architecture," in Rethinking Architecture, ed. Neil Leach (London: Routledge, 1997), 182
4. Robert G. Hershberger, "A Study of Meaning and Architecture," in Environmental Aesthetics: Theory, Research, and Application, ed. Jack L. Nasar (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 190
5. Paul Ricoeur, "The Model of the Text: Meaningful Action Considered as Text," Social Research 38:3 (1971), 529-562
6. M. M. Bakhtin, "The Problem of the Text in Linguistics, Philology, and the Human Sciences: An Experiment in Philosophical Analysis," in Speech Genres and Other Essays, transl. Vern W. McGee; ed. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1986), 103
7. Germain Boffrand, Livre d'Architecture, quoted in George L. Hersey, High Victorian Gothic: A Study in Associationism (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972), 2
8. For example, Vitruvius's gendered account of the orders in Ten Books on Architecture, ed. Ingrid D. Rowland and Thomas Noble Howe (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1991), book 4
9. Robert Venturi, Denise Scott Brown, and Steven Izenour, Learning from Las Vegas (Cambridge, Mass. and London: MIT Press, 1977)
10. Robin Francis Rhodes, Architecture and Meaning on the Athenian Acropolis (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1995)
11. Richard Morris, "The Architecture of Arthurian Enthusiasm: Castle Symbolism in the Reigns of Edward I and His Successors," in Armies, Chivalry, and Warfare in Medieval Britain and France, ed. Matthew Strickland (Stamford, Eng.: Paul Watkins, 1998), 63-81
12. Designing Disney's Theme Parks: The Architecture of Reassurance, ed. Karal Ann Marling (Paris and New York: Flammarion, 1997)
13. A. W. N. Pugin, Contrasts and the True Principles of Pointed or Christian Architecture (Reading, Eng.: Spire Books, 2003)
14. Norman Foster, Rebuilding the Reichstag (London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 2000)
15. Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space, transl. David Nicholson-Smith (Oxford: Blackwell, 1991), 160
16. Spaces for Children: The Built Environment and Child Development, ed. Thomas G. David and Carol Simon Weinstein (New York and London: Plenum Press, 1987)
17. Bonta, Architecture and Its Interpretation, 22
18. Malcolm Vale, The Princely Court: Medieval Courts and Culture in North-West Europe, 1270-1380 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001)
19. David Howarth, Images of Rule: Art and Politics in the English Renaissance, 1485-1649 (Basingstoke, Eng.: Macmillan, 1997)
20. T. C. W. Blanning, The Culture of Power and the Power of Culture: Old Regime Europe, 1660-1789 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002)
21. Robert Tittler, Architecture and Power: The Town Hall and the English Urban Community, c. 1500-1640 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991)
22. Peter Borsay, The English Urban Renaissance: Culture and Society in the Provincial Town, 1660-1770 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989)
23. Deborah E. B. Weiner, Architecture and Social Reform in Late-Victorian London (Manchester, Eng. and New York: Manchester University Press, 1994)
24. William Whyte, "Building a Public School Community, 1860-1910," History of Education 32 (2003), 601-626
25. Christine Stevenson, Medicine and Magnificence: British Hospital and Asylum Architecture, 1660-1815 (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2000)
26. Lindy Briggs, The Rational Factory: Architecture, Technology and Work in America's Age of Mass Production (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996)
27. Ron Robin, Enclaves of America: The Rhetoric of American Political Architecture Abroad, 1900-1965 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992)
28. See also The Archaeology of Reformation, 1480-1580, ed. David Gaimster and Roberta Gilchrist (Leeds, Eng.: Maney, 2003) for some suggestive examples
29. Tittler, Architecture and Power, 1
30. See, especially, Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, transl. Alan Sheridan (London: Penguin, 1979)
31. Erwin Panofsky, Gothic Architecture and Scholasticism (London: Thames and Hudson, 1957)
32. Nikolaus Pevsner, A History of Building Types (London: Thames and Hudson, 1976)
33. On the relationship among the three disciplines, see Alina A. Payne, "Architectural History and the History of Art," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 58 (1999), 292-299
34. A good general summary can be found in Peter Burke, Eyewitnessing: The Uses of Images as Historical Evidence (London: Reaktion, 2001)
35. Archaeology: The Widening Debate, ed. Barry W. Cunliffe, Wendy Davies, and Colin Renfrew (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002)
36. Michael Baxandall, Patterns of Intention: On the Historical Explanation of Pictures (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1985)
37. David Freedburg, The Power of Images: Studies in the History and Theory of Response (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1989)
38. Allan Sekula, "On the Invention of Photographic Meaning," in Photography in Print, ed. Vicki Goldberg (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press:, 1981), 453
39. Norma Broude, Impressionism: A Feminist Reading (New York: Westview Press, 1997)
40. Miranda J. Aldhouse-Green, Celtic Art: Reading the Messages (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1996)
41. Reading Medieval Images: The Art Historian and the Object, ed. Elizabeth Sears and Thelma K. Thomas (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2002)
42. Ian Hodder, Reading the Past: Current Approaches to Interpretation in Archaeology, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1991)
43. and Ian Hodder and Scott Hutton, Reading the Past: Current Approaches to Interpretation in Archaeology, 3rd ed. (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 167-169, 204, 245-246
44. See also R. A. Joyce, Languages of Archaeology (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000)
45. For a skeptical engagement with this theme, see Victor A. Buchli, "Interpreting Material Culture: The Problem with Text," in Interpreting Archaeology: Finding Meaning in the Past, ed. Ian Hodder et al. (London and New York: Routledge, 1995), 181-193
46. Roger Scruton, "Architectural Principles in an Age of Nihilism," in What is Architecture?, ed. Andrew Ballantyne (London and New York: Routledge, 2002), 59
47. Nikolaus Pevsner, An Outline of European Architecture (London: John Murray, 1948), xix
48. Nelson Goodman, "How Buildings Mean," in Nelson Goodman and Catherine Z. Elgin, Reconceptions in Philosophy and Other Arts and Sciences (London: Routledge, 1988), 32
49. Ivan Gaskell, "Visual History," in New Perspectives on Historical Writing, ed. Peter Burke (University Park, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001), 191
50. Paul Heyer, Architects on Architecture: New Directions in America (London: Allen Lane, 1967), 149
51. Ralph Rapson, quoted in Heyer, Architects on Architecture, 57
52. For example, J. Mordaunt Crook, The Architect's Secret: Victorian Critics and the Image of Gravity (London: John Murray, 2003)
53. More conventionally, see Gavin Stamp, The Great Perspectivists (London: Trefoil, 1982)
54. Robert Harbison, The Built, the Unbuilt, and the Unbuildable: In Pursuit of Architectural Meaning (London: Thames and Hudson, 1991)
55. Howard Colvin, Unbuilt Oxford (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1983)
56. Reyner Banham, Theory and Design in the First Machine Age [1960] (Oxford: Architectural Press, 1996)
57. John Gloag, The Architectural Interpretation of History (London: A & C Black, 1975), 1-2
58. G. W. Bernard, "Architecture and Politics in Tudor England," in G. W. Bernard, Power and Politics in Tudor England (Aldershot, Eng.: Ashgate, 2000), 187
59. See also Theodore K. Rabb, "Play Not Politics: Who Really Understood the Symbolism of Renaissance Art?," Times Literary Supplement 10 (November 1995), 18-20
60. Kevin J. Johnston and Nancy Gonlin, "What Do Houses Mean? Approaches to the Analysis of Classic Maya Commoner Residences," in Function and Meaning in Classic Maya Architecture, ed. Stephen D. Houston (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 1998), 141-142
61. David Watkin, The Rise of Architectural History (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1980)
62. See also Bruce Allsopp, The Study of Architectural History (London: Studio Vista, 1970)
63. J. Mordaunt Crook, John Carter and the Mind of the Gothic Revival (London: Society of Antiquaries Occasional Papers 17, 1995)
64. Rosemary Sweet, Antiquaries: The Discovery of the Past in Eighteenth-century Britain (London: Hambledon and London, 2004), 264
65. Élisabeth Décultot, Johann Joachim Winckelmann: Enquête sur la genèse de l'histoire de l'art (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2000)
66. Alex Potts, Flesh and the Ideal: Winckelmann and the Origins of Art History (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2000)
67. Édouard Pommier, Winckelmann, inventeur de l'histoire de l'art (Paris: Gallimard, 2003)
68. Winckelmann: Writings on Art, ed. David Irwin (London: Phaidon, 1972), 53
69. Arnold Hauser, The Philosophy of Art History (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1959), 259
70. E. H. Gombrich, " 'The Father of Art History': A Reading of the Lectures on Aesthetics of G. W. F. Hegel (1770-1831)," in idem, Tributes: Interpreters of Our Cultural Tradition (Oxford: Phaidon, 1984), 51-69
71. Jeremy Melvin, "Architecture and Philosophy: The Case of G. W. F. Hegel," in Borden and Dunster, ed., Architecture and the Sites of History, 189-199
72. Paul Crowther, "Art, Architecture and Self-Consciousness: An Exploration of Hegel's Aesthetic," in Philosophy and Architecture, ed. Andrew E. Benjamin (London: Academy Editions, 1990), 65-73
73. Michael Ann Holly, Panofsky and the Foundations of Art History (Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell University Press, 1984), 30
74. Quoted in E. H. Gombrich, "In Search of Cultural History," in idem, Ideals and Idols: Essays on Values in History and in Art (Oxford: Phaidon, 1979), 36
75. Holly, Panofsky and the Foundations of Art History, 30
76. David Watkin, Morality and Architecture Revisited (1977; London: John Murray, 2001)
77. Heinrich Wölfflin, Principles of Art History: The Problem of the Development of Style in Later Art, transl. M. D. Hottinger (London: G. Bell and Sons, 1932), 9
78. See also Margaret Iverson, Alois Riegl: Art History and Theory (Cambridge, Mass. and London: MIT Press, 1993)
79. Joan Hart, "Reinterpreting Wölfflin: Neo-Kantianism and Hermeneutics," Art Journal 42:4 (1982), 292-300
80. Wölfflin, Principles of Art History, 10
81. Michael Podro, The Critical Historians of Art (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1982), ch. 6-7
82. Diana Graham Reynolds, "Alois Riegl and the Politics of Art History: Intellectual Traditions and Austrian Identity in Fin-de-siècle Vienna" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California at San Diego, 1997), 33-43
83. Sigfried Giedion, Space, Time and Architecture: The Growth of a New Tradition, 5th ed. (Cambridge Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1967), 2
84. Ute Engel, "The Foundation of Pevsner's Art History: Nikolaus Pevsner, 1902-1935," in Reassessing Nikolaus Pevsner, ed. Peter Draper (Aldershot, Eng.: Ashgate, 2004), 29-55
85. See also Marlite Halbertsma, "Nikolaus Pevsner and the End of a Tradition: The Legacy of Wilhelm Pinder," Apollo 137 (1993), 107-109
86. Nikolaus Pevsner, The Englishness of English Art (London: Architectural Press, 1956), 16
87. Erwin Panofsky, Gothic Architecture and Scholasticism (Latrobe, PA: Archabbey Press, 1951), 1
88. Pevsner, Outline of European Architecture, xxi
89. Engel, "The Formation of Pevsner's Art History," 35-37
90. Nikolaus Pevsner, Pioneers of Modern Design: From William Morris to Walter Gropius (London: Penguin, 1975)
91. Giedion, Space, Time and Architecture, 19
92. For a Marxist approach to these issues, see Arnold Hauser, The Philosophy of Art (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1959), 267
93. See, especially, John Ruskin, Complete Works, ed. E. J. Cook and A. Wedderburn, 39 vols. (London, 1903-1909), XI, 135-136
94. Auguste Choisy, Histoire de l'Architecture, 2 vols. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1899)
95. John Ruskin, Praeterita [1899] (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), 5
96. William Whyte, Oxford Jackson: Architecture, Education, Status, and Style, 1835-1924 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, forthcoming), ch. 1
97. Peter Mandler, "John Summerson (1904-1992): The Architectural Critic and the Search for the Modern," in After the Victorians: Private Conscience and Public Duty in Modern England, ed. Susan Pederson and Peter Mandler (London and New York: Routledge, 1994), 229-246
98. T. G. Jackson, Gothic Architecture in France, England and Italy, 2 vols. (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1915), I, 53-59
99. J. M. Richards, An Introduction to Modern Architecture, rev. ed. (Harmondsworth, Eng.: Pelican, 1956), 103
100. Michael Podro, "Ernst Hans Josef Gombrich," Proceedings of the British Academy 120 (2003), 175-198
101. Quoted in Didier Eribon and E. H. Gombrich, A Lifelong Interest (London: Thames and Hudson, 1993) 162-165
102. Elizabeth McKellar, "Architectural History: The Invisible Subject," Journal of Architecture 1 (1996), 159-164
103. Watkin, Rise of Architectural History, 160-164
104. Mark Girouard, Robert Smythson and the Elizabethan Country House (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1983), ch. 6
105. James S. Ackerman, The Villa: Form and Ideology of Country Houses (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990)
106. John Onians, Bearers of Memory: The Classical Orders in Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Renaissance (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1988)
107. Gombrich, Tributes, 63
108. John Summerson, The Classical Language of Architecture [1963] (London: Thames and Hudson, 1996)
109. Louis Sullivan: The Public Papers, ed. Robert Twombley (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 175
110. Ruskin, Complete Works, VIII, 252
111. Richards, An Introduction to Modern Architecture, 23
112. David Watkin, A History of Western Architecture, 2nd ed. (London: Lawrence King, 1996), 579
113. See, for example, Jean-Paul Lebeuf, "Myth and Fable," Encyclopedia of World Art (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1972), X, 497-499
114. Gillo Dorfles, "Structure and Semiology in Architecture," in Jencks and Baird, Meaning in Architecture, 38-49
115. Jan Mukarovsky, "On the Problem of Functions in Architecture," in idem, Structure, Sign and Function, transl. John Burbank and Peter Steiner (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1978), 236-250
116. Geoffrey Broadbent, "A Plain Man's Guide to the Theory of Signs in Architecture," in Theorizing a New Agenda for Architecture: An Anthology of Architectural Theory, 1965-1995, ed. Kate Nesbitt (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1996), 124-140
117. Charles Jencks, The Language of Post-Modern Architecture, 6th ed. (London: Academy Editions, 1991), 39-62
118. Donald Preziosi, Architecture, Language and Meaning: The Origins of the Built World and its Semiotic Organization (The Hague: Mouton, 1979), 15
119. See also idem, The Semiotics of the Built Environment: An Introduction to Architectonic Analyses (Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press, 1979)
120. Roger Scruton, The Aesthetics of Architecture (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979), 158, 167
121. Lefebvre, Production of Space, 62
122. Although cf. Broadbent, "A Plain Man's Guide."
123. Louis Hellman, "The Language of Architecture," in The Routledge Companion to Contemporary Architectural Thought, ed. Ben Farmer and Hentie Louw (London and New York: 1993), 518-519
124. For a skeptical engagement with this, see Gillian Rose, "Architecture to Philosophy-the Postmodern Complicity," Theory, Culture and Society 5:2-3 (1988), 357-372
125. Mark Wigley, "The Translation of Architecture: The Product of Babel," Architectural Design 60:9-10(1990), 6-13
126. The Urban Text, ed. Mario Gandelsonas (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991), 26
127. Edward Winters, "Architecture, Meaning, and Significance," Journal of Architecture 1 (1996), 46
128. Paul L. Knox, "The Social Production of the Built Environment: Architects, Architecture, and the Post-modern City," Progress in Human Geography 11 (1987), 354-377
129. De Certeau, "Spatial Stories," 87
130. Edward W. Soja, Postmodern Geographies: The Reassertion of Space in Critical Social Theory (London and New York: Verso, 1989), 247
131. Jan Birksted, "Thinking through Architecture," Journal of Architecture 4 (1999), 55-64 notes the increasing use of an analogy between architecture and philosophy
132. Although see Nelson Goodman, Languages of Art: An Approach to a Theory of Symbols (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1976), 41
133. Paul Crowther, Art and Embodiment: From, Aesthetics to Self-Consciousness (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), 12
134. See also Christian Norberg-Schulz, Meaning in Western Architecture (London: Studio Vista, 1975), 5-6
135. For example, Stefan Muthesius, "The 'Iron Problem' in the 1850s," Architectural History 13 (1970), 58-63
136. Antoine Picon, "The Freestanding Column in Eighteenth-Century Religious Architecture," in Lorraine Daston, Things That Talk: Lessons from Art and Science (New York: Zone Books, 2004), 67-99
137. Rowland J. Mainstone, Structure in Architecture (Aldershot, Eng.: Ashgate Variorum, 1999)
138. Goodman, "How Buildings Mean," 32
139. Goodman, Languages of Art, 90-91
140. For an extreme example of this see George L. Hersey, The Lost Meaning of Classical Architecture: Speculations on Ornament from Vitruvius to Venturi (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988)
141. Helen Hills, "The Veiled Body: Within the Folds of Early Modern Neapolitan Convent Architecture," Oxford Art Journal 27:3 (2004), 269-290
142. Suzanne Preston Blier, The Anatomy of Architecture: Ontology and Metaphor in Batammaliba Architectural Expression (Cambridge, Eng. : Cambridge University Press, 1987)
143. John Harris, The Palladian Revival: Lord Burlington, His Villa and Garden at Chiswick (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1994)
144. Iain Borden, "The Politics of the Plan," in Borden and Dunster, ed., Architecture and the Sites of History, 214-226
145. Michel Gallet, Claude-Nicolas Ledoux, 1736-1806 (Paris: Picard, 1980), ch. 14
146. Nicola Coldstream, "The Architect, History and Architectural History," Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 13 (2003), 219-226
147. Howard Colvin, "Writing a Biographical Dictionary of British Architects," in idem, Essays in English Architectural History (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1999), 292-298
148. Anthony Geraghty, "Introducing Thomas Laine: Draughtsman to Sir Christopher Wren," Architectural History 42 (1999), 240-245
149. "Nicholas Hawksmoor and the Wren City Church Steeples," The Georgian Group Journal 10 (2000), 1-14
150. "Edward Woodroofe: Sir Christopher Wren's First Draughtsman," The Burlington Magazine 143 (August 2001), 474-479
151. Emma Hardy, "Farmer and Brindley: Craftsmen Sculptors 1850-1930," Victorian Society Annual (1993), 4-17
152. Alexandrina Buchanon, "The Power and the Glory: The Meanings of Medieval Architecture," in Borden and Dunster, ed., Architecture and the Sites of History, 78-92, esp. 85-88
153. Colvin, Unbuilt Oxford, ch. 1
154. D. B. Brownlee, "That 'Regular Mongrel Affair': G. G. Scott's Design for the Government Offices," Architectural History 28 (1985), 159-182
155. Philip Nobel, Sixteen Acres: The Rebuilding of the World Trade Center Site (London: Granta, 2005)
156. See also Bryan Ward-Perkins, From Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages: Urban Public Building in Northern and Central Italy AD 300-850 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), ch. 4
157. Robert N. Nelson, Hagia Sophia: Holy Wisdom, Modern Monument (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2004)
158. Pattabi G. Raman and Richard Coyne, "The Production of Architectural Criticism," Architectural Theory Review 5:1 (2000), 94
159. Richard Morris, Churches in the Landscape (London: Dent, 1989)
160. Kathleen Curran, The Romanesque Revival: Religion, Politics, and Transnational Exchange (University Park, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003)
161. Joseph M. Levine, Between the Ancients and the Moderns: Baroque Culture in Restoration England (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1999), ch. 1
162. M. F. Hearn, "Villard de Honnecourt's Perception of Gothic Architecture," in Eric Fernie and Paul Crossley, Medieval Architecture and its Intellectual Context: Studies in Honour of Peter Kidson (London and Ronceverte: The Hambledon Press, 1990), 127-136
163. Anne Lawrence, "Space, Status, and Gender in English Topographical Prints, c. 1660-c. 1740," Architectural History 46 (2003), 81-94
164. See also, Branko Mitrovic, "Objectively Speaking," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 52:1 (1993), 66
165. For an articulation of this idea of "thick translation," see Kwame Anthony Appiah, "Thick Translation," in The Translation Studies Reader, ed. Lawrence Venuti (London and New York: Routledge, 2000), 417-429
166. Roman Jakobson, "On Linguistic Aspects of Translation," in On Translation, ed. Reuben A. Brower (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959), 233
167. Richard Bradford, Roman Jakobson: Life, Language, Art (London and New York: Routledge, 1994), 169
168. M. M. Bakhtin, "Forms of Time and of the Chronotope in the Novel," in idem, The Dialogic Imagination, ed. Michael Holquist; transl. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981), 84
169. Caryl Emerson, Boris Godunov: Transpositions of a Russian Theme (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986), 5
170. See also Philip Ross Bullock, "Staging Stalinism: The Search for Soviet Opera in the 1930s," Cambridge Opera Journal (forthcoming 2006)
171. Bakhtin, "Forms of Time and of the Chronotope in the Novel."
172. M. M. Bakhtin, "Towards a Methodology in the Human Sciences," in idem, Speech Genres, 166
173. Wolfgang Lotz, "The Rendering of the Interior in Architectural Drawings of the Renaissance," in idem, Studies in Italian Renaissance Architecture (Cambridge, MA and London: MIT Press, 1977), 1-65
174. Robin Evans, The Projective Cast: Architecture and its Geometries (Cambridge, MA and London: MIT Press, 1995)
175. Alberto Pérez-Gómez and Louise Pelletier, Architectural Representation and the Perspective Hinge (Cambridge, MA and London: MIT Press, 1997)
176. Mario Carpo, Architecture in the Age of Printing: Orality, Writing, Typography, and Printed Images in the History of Architectural Theory, transl. Sarah Benson (Cambridge MA and London: MIT Press, 2001)
177. Gehry Talks: Architecture and Process, ed. Mildred Friedman (London: Thames and Hudson, 2003), 8
178. Vaughan Hart, Nicholas Hawksmoor: Rebuilding Ancient Wonders (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2002), 105-111
179. David Cast, "Speaking of Architecture: The Evolution of a Vocabulary in Vasari, Jones, and Sir John Vanbrugh," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 52 (1993), 179-188
180. Sarah McPhee, "The Architect as Reader," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 58 (1999), 454-468
181. Sweet, Antiquaries, ch. 7
182. Gillian Darley, John Soane: An Accidental Romantic (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1999), 145-146
183. Allan Doig, Theo Van Doesburg: Painting into Architecture, Theory into Practice (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1986)
184. Catherine Cooke, "Socialist Realist Architecture: Theory and Practice," in Art of the Soviets: Painting, Sculpture and Architecture in a One-Party State, 1917-1992, ed. Matthew Cullerne Bown and Brandon Taylor (Manchester, Eng. and New York: Manchester University Press, 1993), 86-105
185. Tim Benton, "Speaking without Adjectives: Architecture in the Service of Totalitarianism," in Art and Power: Europe under the Dictators, 1930-45, ed. Dawn Ades et al. (London: Hayward Gallery, 1995), 40
186. Thomas L. Schumacher, Surface and Symbol: Giuseppe Terragni and the Architecture of Italian Rationalism (London: ADT, 1991), esp. 139-170
187. William Whyte, "Reading Buildings Like a Book: The Case of T. G. Jackson," in Current Work in Architectural History: Papers Read at the Annual Symposium of the Society of Architectural Historians of Great Britain 2004, ed. Peter Draper (London: Society of Architectural Historians, 2005), 27-34