Diversity and professional excellence

Journal of the National Medical Association

Volumn 96, Issue 10, 2004, Pages 1354-1362

  Boylan, Michael ^a   Grant, Richard E ^b  

^a MARYMOUNT UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b Grant Orthoped Bone and Jt Surgs   (United States)

Author keywords

African americans; Diversity; Minorities; Orthopedic surgery; Professional ethics; Residency admissions; Women

Indexed keywords

AFRICAN AMERICAN; COMPETENCE; MEDICAL ETHICS; MEDICAL PROFESSION; MEDICAL SPECIALIST; MORALITY; ORTHOPEDIC SURGERY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RESIDENCY EDUCATION; REVIEW; SOCIAL EVOLUTION; SURGEON;

ANALYTICAL APPROACH; BIOETHICS AND PROFESSIONAL ETHICS;

ACHIEVEMENT; AFRICAN AMERICANS; CULTURAL DIVERSITY; ETHNIC GROUPS; FEMALE; HUMANS; INTERNSHIP AND RESIDENCY; MALE; MINORITY GROUPS; MORALS; ORTHOPEDICS; SCHOOL ADMISSION CRITERIA; SCHOOLS, MEDICAL; SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY; UNITED STATES;

EID: 4844224024     PISSN: 00279684     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (60)

1. The authors would like to acknowledge the suggestions of the anonymous reviewers that were helpful in revising the essay.
2. For the purposes of this essay we will view "professions" rather broadly to include any group that requires specialized education and which sets internal standards of best practices such that the violation of these practices constitutes malpractice of the profession. This would include (but not be limited to) physicians, teachers, clergy, accountants, lawyers, and others.
3. The reader should note that 'merit' (often referred to in the literature of philosophy as 'deserts') refers to a theory of what agents can justifiably claim on the basis of their achievements.
4. By 'puzzle-maker' we mean the person who puts a puzzle together, not one who manufacturers it.
5. Miller RS, Dunn MR, Richter T. Graduate medical education: 1998-1999. JAMA. 1999; 282: 855-860.
6. England SP, Pierce Jr RO. Current diversity in orthopedics. Clin Orthop. 1999;362:40-43.
7. This information was compiled by Terry Thompson of Howard as part of Howard's self-study accreditation; cf. Grant RE, Banks WJ, Alleyne KR. A survey of the ethnic and racial distribution in orthopedic residency programs in the United States. J Natl Med Assoc. 1999;91:509-512.
8. Ayers CE. Minorities and the orthopedic profession. Clin Orthop. 1999;362:58-64.
9. Bernstein A, Jazrawi LM, Elbeshbeshy B, et al. The orthopedic forum: orthopedic resident selection criteria: a study design to evaluate the orthopedic resident selection process in the United States. JB&JS. 2002;84:2090-2096.
10. These and other issue of minority participation in orthopedics are addressed in a special issue of Clin Orthop. White AA. Ed. 1999: 365. See also: Tolo VT. The challenges of change: is orthopaedics ready? JS&JS. 2002;84:1707-1713.
11. These and other issue of minority participation in orthopedics are addressed in a special issue of Clin Orthop. White AA. Ed. 1999: 365. See also: Tolo VT. The challenges of change: is orthopaedics ready? JS&JS. 2002;84:1707-1713.
12. One version of the contract between the medical profession and science has been set out as a three stage process by Veatch R. A theory of medical ethics. NY: Basic Books; 1981, cf. Sox, HC. Medical professionalism in the new millennium: a physician charter. Ann Intern Med. 2002;136:243-246.
13. One version of the contract between the medical profession and science has been set out as a three stage process by Veatch R. A theory of medical ethics. NY: Basic Books; 1981, cf. Sox, HC. Medical professionalism in the new millennium: a physician charter. Ann Intern Med. 2002;136:243-246.
14. The reason that professionals deserve respect, support, and compassion is that they are fallible humans and not gods. So long as the professional upholds her or his side of the contract, then it seems reasonable for society to do so, too. For more on this see Boylan M, Donahue JA. Ethics across the curriculum Lanham, Boulder, Oxford: Lexington Books; 2003: chapter 5.
15. An example of an unethical contract would be certain social contracts between criminal associations (such as the Mafia) and a group of people. "We will protect you so long as you pay us protection money [extortion]." However, the example given above is far from this sort of exception.
16. JAMA. 1989;261.2.
17. Price M, Smuts B. Prospective students and parents: attitudes toward a graduate-entry medical degree. South African Medical Journal. 2002;92.8: 632-633.
18. Babbott D, Weaver SO, Baldwin DC Jr. Personal characteristics, career plans, and specialty choices of medical students elected to alpha omega alpha. Archiv Intern Med. 1989;149:586-580.
19. Some would seek to separate 'empathy' from 'sympathy.' 'Empathy' is a word that (according to the Oxford English Dictionary) entered the language in 1912 as a translation of ein (in) + fühlung (feeling) into English after the writings of Lipps H, Academy. The Monthly Record of Literature, Learning, Science, and Art. 1912; 17: 209. Lipps set forth a theory of literary criticism based upon one's ability to project himself into the work of art. This is similar in content to Keats's "negative capability." For a discussion on the historical development of this term in English see: Wispé LG. The history of the concept of empathy. In: Eisenberg N, Strayer J eds. Empathy and its development. NY: Cambridge University Press; 1987:17-37. (Wispé puts the date into English at 1909.) Many try to draw distinctions between 'empathy' and 'sympathy' with the former indicating the connection of feeling and the latter a connection that is attached with a sorrow for another's plight. For some discussion of this point of view see the collection of essays, in Eisenberg and Strayer (1987). Since 'sympathy' means in Ancient Greek sym + pathos (a connection of feelings), this seems to be sufficiently robust for our argument. 'Care' is the action response to 'sympathy' for an extended discussion of these relations, see: Boylan M, A just society. Lanham, Boulder, Oxford: Rowman and Littlefield; 2004; chapter 3.
20. Some would seek to separate 'empathy' from 'sympathy.' 'Empathy' is a word that (according to the Oxford English Dictionary) entered the language in 1912 as a translation of ein (in) + fühlung (feeling) into English after the writings of Lipps H, Academy. The Monthly Record of Literature, Learning, Science, and Art. 1912; 17: 209. Lipps set forth a theory of literary criticism based upon one's ability to project himself into the work of art. This is similar in content to Keats's "negative capability." For a discussion on the historical development of this term in English see: Wispé LG. The history of the concept of empathy. In: Eisenberg N, Strayer J eds. Empathy and its development. NY: Cambridge University Press; 1987:17-37. (Wispé puts the date into English at 1909.) Many try to draw distinctions between 'empathy' and 'sympathy' with the former indicating the connection of feeling and the latter a connection that is attached with a sorrow for another's plight. For some discussion of this point of view see the collection of essays, in Eisenberg and Strayer (1987). Since 'sympathy' means in Ancient Greek sym + pathos (a connection of feelings), this seems to be sufficiently robust for our argument. 'Care' is the action response to 'sympathy' for an extended discussion of these relations, see: Boylan M, A just society. Lanham, Boulder, Oxford: Rowman and Littlefield; 2004; chapter 3.
21. Some would seek to separate 'empathy' from 'sympathy.' 'Empathy' is a word that (according to the Oxford English Dictionary) entered the language in 1912 as a translation of ein (in) + fühlung (feeling) into English after the writings of Lipps H, Academy. The Monthly Record of Literature, Learning, Science, and Art. 1912; 17: 209. Lipps set forth a theory of literary criticism based upon one's ability to project himself into the work of art. This is similar in content to Keats's "negative capability." For a discussion on the historical development of this term in English see: Wispé LG. The history of the concept of empathy. In: Eisenberg N, Strayer J eds. Empathy and its development. NY: Cambridge University Press; 1987:17-37. (Wispé puts the date into English at 1909.) Many try to draw distinctions between 'empathy' and 'sympathy' with the former indicating the connection of feeling and the latter a connection that is attached with a sorrow for another's plight. For some discussion of this point of view see the collection of essays, in Eisenberg and Strayer (1987). Since 'sympathy' means in Ancient Greek sym + pathos (a connection of feelings), this seems to be sufficiently robust for our argument. 'Care' is the action response to 'sympathy' for an extended discussion of these relations, see: Boylan M, A just society. Lanham, Boulder, Oxford: Rowman and Littlefield; 2004; chapter 3.
22. Chavez LR, Hubbell FA, McMullin JM, et al. Understanding knowledge and attitudes about breast cancer: a cultural analysis. Arch. Family Medicine. 1995;4:145-152 and Morgan C, Park E, Cortes DE. Beliefs, knowledge, and behavior about cancer among urban hispanic women. Journal of the National Cancer Institute Monographs. 1995;18:57-63. Part of the problem may also be related to minority women's health. Recent studies of note that discuss cultural problems in treating Hispanic women who have had medical problems are discussed in: McCartney P. Internet resources on minority women's health. MCN, American Journal of Maternal Child Nursing. 2002;27: 355 and Riegel B, Cailson B, Glase D, et al. Standardized telephonic case management in a hispanic heart failure population: an effective intervention. Disease Management and Health Outcomes. 2002;10: 241-249.
23. Chavez LR, Hubbell FA, McMullin JM, et al. Understanding knowledge and attitudes about breast cancer: a cultural analysis. Arch. Family Medicine. 1995;4:145-152 and Morgan C, Park E, Cortes DE. Beliefs, knowledge, and behavior about cancer among urban hispanic women. Journal of the National Cancer Institute Monographs. 1995;18:57-63. Part of the problem may also be related to minority women's health. Recent studies of note that discuss cultural problems in treating Hispanic women who have had medical problems are discussed in: McCartney P. Internet resources on minority women's health. MCN, American Journal of Maternal Child Nursing. 2002;27: 355 and Riegel B, Cailson B, Glase D, et al. Standardized telephonic case management in a hispanic heart failure population: an effective intervention. Disease Management and Health Outcomes. 2002;10: 241-249.
24. Chavez LR, Hubbell FA, McMullin JM, et al. Understanding knowledge and attitudes about breast cancer: a cultural analysis. Arch. Family Medicine. 1995;4:145-152 and Morgan C, Park E, Cortes DE. Beliefs, knowledge, and behavior about cancer among urban hispanic women. Journal of the National Cancer Institute Monographs. 1995;18:57-63. Part of the problem may also be related to minority women's health. Recent studies of note that discuss cultural problems in treating Hispanic women who have had medical problems are discussed in: McCartney P. Internet resources on minority women's health. MCN, American Journal of Maternal Child Nursing. 2002;27: 355 and Riegel B, Cailson B, Glase D, et al. Standardized telephonic case management in a hispanic heart failure population: an effective intervention. Disease Management and Health Outcomes. 2002;10: 241-249.
25. Chavez LR, Hubbell FA, McMullin JM, et al. Understanding knowledge and attitudes about breast cancer: a cultural analysis. Arch. Family Medicine. 1995;4:145-152 and Morgan C, Park E, Cortes DE. Beliefs, knowledge, and behavior about cancer among urban hispanic women. Journal of the National Cancer Institute Monographs. 1995;18:57-63. Part of the problem may also be related to minority women's health. Recent studies of note that discuss cultural problems in treating Hispanic women who have had medical problems are discussed in: McCartney P. Internet resources on minority women's health. MCN, American Journal of Maternal Child Nursing. 2002;27: 355 and Riegel B, Cailson B, Glase D, et al. Standardized telephonic case management in a hispanic heart failure population: an effective intervention. Disease Management and Health Outcomes. 2002;10: 241-249.
26. The exploration of multicultural literacy in clinical practice is a developing area of research. Recent work includes: Kundhal KK. Cultural diversity: an evolving challenge to physician-patient communication. JAMA. 2003; 289:94; Tanne JH. U.S. medical schools should consider race in admitting students. BMJ. 2002;325:565; Tolo V. The challenges of change: is orthopaedics ready? JS&JS. 2002; 84: 1707-1713; the special theme issue of Academic Medicine 77.3 (2002) - especially Fuller K. Eradicating essentialism from cultural competency education; and Green AR, Betancourt JR, Carrilo JE. Integrating social factors into cross-cultural medical education, and Drouin J, Jean P. Educating future physicians for a minority population: a french-language stream at the university of Ottawa, and Hunt LM, Beyond cultural competence. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:3-4, and McCurdy DB. A 'competence' we can't do without.' The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:2, and Barnes L, Harris G. Changing medical landscape. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:7-8. See also: Nuñez AE. Transforming cultural competence into cross-cultural efficacy in women's health education. Acad Med. 2000;75:1071-1080; Brach C, Fraser I. Can cultural competency reduce racial and ethnic health disparities? Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1):181-217; Mayberry RM, Mili F, Ofili E. Racial and ethnic differences in access to medical care. Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1): 108-145; Carillo JE, Green AR, Betancourt JR. Cross-cultural primary care: a patient-based approach. Annal Intern Med. 1999;130:829-834; Lantz PM, House JS, Lepkowski JM, et al. Socioeconomic factor, health behaviors, and mortality: results from a nationally representative prospective study of U.S. adults. JAMA. 1998;279:1703-08; and Culhane-Pera KA, Reif C, Egli E, et al. A curriculum for multicultural education in family practice. Family Medicine. 1997;28:719-723; Boylan M, Culture and medical intervention. Journal of Clinical Ethics. forthcoming, 2004.
27. The exploration of multicultural literacy in clinical practice is a developing area of research. Recent work includes: Kundhal KK. Cultural diversity: an evolving challenge to physician-patient communication. JAMA. 2003; 289:94; Tanne JH. U.S. medical schools should consider race in admitting students. BMJ. 2002;325:565; Tolo V. The challenges of change: is orthopaedics ready? JS&JS. 2002; 84: 1707-1713; the special theme issue of Academic Medicine 77.3 (2002) - especially Fuller K. Eradicating essentialism from cultural competency education; and Green AR, Betancourt JR, Carrilo JE. Integrating social factors into cross-cultural medical education, and Drouin J, Jean P. Educating future physicians for a minority population: a french-language stream at the university of Ottawa, and Hunt LM, Beyond cultural competence. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:3-4, and McCurdy DB. A 'competence' we can't do without.' The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:2, and Barnes L, Harris G. Changing medical landscape. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:7-8. See also: Nuñez AE. Transforming cultural competence into cross-cultural efficacy in women's health education. Acad Med. 2000;75:1071-1080; Brach C, Fraser I. Can cultural competency reduce racial and ethnic health disparities? Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1):181-217; Mayberry RM, Mili F, Ofili E. Racial and ethnic differences in access to medical care. Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1): 108-145; Carillo JE, Green AR, Betancourt JR. Cross-cultural primary care: a patient-based approach. Annal Intern Med. 1999;130:829-834; Lantz PM, House JS, Lepkowski JM, et al. Socioeconomic factor, health behaviors, and mortality: results from a nationally representative prospective study of U.S. adults. JAMA. 1998;279:1703-08; and Culhane-Pera KA, Reif C, Egli E, et al. A curriculum for multicultural education in family practice. Family Medicine. 1997;28:719-723; Boylan M, Culture and medical intervention. Journal of Clinical Ethics. forthcoming, 2004.
28. The exploration of multicultural literacy in clinical practice is a developing area of research. Recent work includes: Kundhal KK. Cultural diversity: an evolving challenge to physician-patient communication. JAMA. 2003; 289:94; Tanne JH. U.S. medical schools should consider race in admitting students. BMJ. 2002;325:565; Tolo V. The challenges of change: is orthopaedics ready? JS&JS. 2002; 84: 1707-1713; the special theme issue of Academic Medicine 77.3 (2002) - especially Fuller K. Eradicating essentialism from cultural competency education; and Green AR, Betancourt JR, Carrilo JE. Integrating social factors into cross-cultural medical education, and Drouin J, Jean P. Educating future physicians for a minority population: a french-language stream at the university of Ottawa, and Hunt LM, Beyond cultural competence. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:3-4, and McCurdy DB. A 'competence' we can't do without.' The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:2, and Barnes L, Harris G. Changing medical landscape. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:7-8. See also: Nuñez AE. Transforming cultural competence into cross-cultural efficacy in women's health education. Acad Med. 2000;75:1071-1080; Brach C, Fraser I. Can cultural competency reduce racial and ethnic health disparities? Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1):181-217; Mayberry RM, Mili F, Ofili E. Racial and ethnic differences in access to medical care. Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1): 108-145; Carillo JE, Green AR, Betancourt JR. Cross-cultural primary care: a patient-based approach. Annal Intern Med. 1999;130:829-834; Lantz PM, House JS, Lepkowski JM, et al. Socioeconomic factor, health behaviors, and mortality: results from a nationally representative prospective study of U.S. adults. JAMA. 1998;279:1703-08; and Culhane-Pera KA, Reif C, Egli E, et al. A curriculum for multicultural education in family practice. Family Medicine. 1997;28:719-723; Boylan M, Culture and medical intervention. Journal of Clinical Ethics. forthcoming, 2004.
29. The exploration of multicultural literacy in clinical practice is a developing area of research. Recent work includes: Kundhal KK. Cultural diversity: an evolving challenge to physician-patient communication. JAMA. 2003; 289:94; Tanne JH. U.S. medical schools should consider race in admitting students. BMJ. 2002;325:565; Tolo V. The challenges of change: is orthopaedics ready? JS&JS. 2002; 84: 1707-1713; the special theme issue of Academic Medicine 77.3 (2002) - especially Fuller K. Eradicating essentialism from cultural competency education; and Green AR, Betancourt JR, Carrilo JE. Integrating social factors into cross-cultural medical education, and Drouin J, Jean P. Educating future physicians for a minority population: a french-language stream at the university of Ottawa, and Hunt LM, Beyond cultural competence. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:3-4, and McCurdy DB. A 'competence' we can't do without.' The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:2, and Barnes L, Harris G. Changing medical landscape. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:7-8. See also: Nuñez AE. Transforming cultural competence into cross-cultural efficacy in women's health education. Acad Med. 2000;75:1071-1080; Brach C, Fraser I. Can cultural competency reduce racial and ethnic health disparities? Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1):181-217; Mayberry RM, Mili F, Ofili E. Racial and ethnic differences in access to medical care. Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1): 108-145; Carillo JE, Green AR, Betancourt JR. Cross-cultural primary care: a patient-based approach. Annal Intern Med. 1999;130:829-834; Lantz PM, House JS, Lepkowski JM, et al. Socioeconomic factor, health behaviors, and mortality: results from a nationally representative prospective study of U.S. adults. JAMA. 1998;279:1703-08; and Culhane-Pera KA, Reif C, Egli E, et al. A curriculum for multicultural education in family practice. Family Medicine. 1997;28:719-723; Boylan M, Culture and medical intervention. Journal of Clinical Ethics. forthcoming, 2004.
30. The exploration of multicultural literacy in clinical practice is a developing area of research. Recent work includes: Kundhal KK. Cultural diversity: an evolving challenge to physician-patient communication. JAMA. 2003; 289:94; Tanne JH. U.S. medical schools should consider race in admitting students. BMJ. 2002;325:565; Tolo V. The challenges of change: is orthopaedics ready? JS&JS. 2002; 84: 1707-1713; the special theme issue of Academic Medicine 77.3 (2002) - especially Fuller K. Eradicating essentialism from cultural competency education; and Green AR, Betancourt JR, Carrilo JE. Integrating social factors into cross-cultural medical education, and Drouin J, Jean P. Educating future physicians for a minority population: a french-language stream at the university of Ottawa, and Hunt LM, Beyond cultural competence. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:3-4, and McCurdy DB. A 'competence' we can't do without.' The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:2, and Barnes L, Harris G. Changing medical landscape. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:7-8. See also: Nuñez AE. Transforming cultural competence into cross-cultural efficacy in women's health education. Acad Med. 2000;75:1071-1080; Brach C, Fraser I. Can cultural competency reduce racial and ethnic health disparities? Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1):181-217; Mayberry RM, Mili F, Ofili E. Racial and ethnic differences in access to medical care. Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1): 108-145; Carillo JE, Green AR, Betancourt JR. Cross-cultural primary care: a patient-based approach. Annal Intern Med. 1999;130:829-834; Lantz PM, House JS, Lepkowski JM, et al. Socioeconomic factor, health behaviors, and mortality: results from a nationally representative prospective study of U.S. adults. JAMA. 1998;279:1703-08; and Culhane-Pera KA, Reif C, Egli E, et al. A curriculum for multicultural education in family practice. Family Medicine. 1997;28:719-723; Boylan M, Culture and medical intervention. Journal of Clinical Ethics. forthcoming, 2004.
31. The exploration of multicultural literacy in clinical practice is a developing area of research. Recent work includes: Kundhal KK. Cultural diversity: an evolving challenge to physician-patient communication. JAMA. 2003; 289:94; Tanne JH. U.S. medical schools should consider race in admitting students. BMJ. 2002;325:565; Tolo V. The challenges of change: is orthopaedics ready? JS&JS. 2002; 84: 1707-1713; the special theme issue of Academic Medicine 77.3 (2002) - especially Fuller K. Eradicating essentialism from cultural competency education; and Green AR, Betancourt JR, Carrilo JE. Integrating social factors into cross-cultural medical education, and Drouin J, Jean P. Educating future physicians for a minority population: a french-language stream at the university of Ottawa, and Hunt LM, Beyond cultural competence. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:3-4, and McCurdy DB. A 'competence' we can't do without.' The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:2, and Barnes L, Harris G. Changing medical landscape. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:7-8. See also: Nuñez AE. Transforming cultural competence into cross-cultural efficacy in women's health education. Acad Med. 2000;75:1071-1080; Brach C, Fraser I. Can cultural competency reduce racial and ethnic health disparities? Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1):181-217; Mayberry RM, Mili F, Ofili E. Racial and ethnic differences in access to medical care. Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1): 108-145; Carillo JE, Green AR, Betancourt JR. Cross-cultural primary care: a patient-based approach. Annal Intern Med. 1999;130:829-834; Lantz PM, House JS, Lepkowski JM, et al. Socioeconomic factor, health behaviors, and mortality: results from a nationally representative prospective study of U.S. adults. JAMA. 1998;279:1703-08; and Culhane-Pera KA, Reif C, Egli E, et al. A curriculum for multicultural education in family practice. Family Medicine. 1997;28:719-723; Boylan M, Culture and medical intervention. Journal of Clinical Ethics. forthcoming, 2004.
32. The exploration of multicultural literacy in clinical practice is a developing area of research. Recent work includes: Kundhal KK. Cultural diversity: an evolving challenge to physician-patient communication. JAMA. 2003; 289:94; Tanne JH. U.S. medical schools should consider race in admitting students. BMJ. 2002;325:565; Tolo V. The challenges of change: is orthopaedics ready? JS&JS. 2002; 84: 1707-1713; the special theme issue of Academic Medicine 77.3 (2002) - especially Fuller K. Eradicating essentialism from cultural competency education; and Green AR, Betancourt JR, Carrilo JE. Integrating social factors into cross-cultural medical education, and Drouin J, Jean P. Educating future physicians for a minority population: a french-language stream at the university of Ottawa, and Hunt LM, Beyond cultural competence. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:3-4, and McCurdy DB. A 'competence' we can't do without.' The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:2, and Barnes L, Harris G. Changing medical landscape. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:7-8. See also: Nuñez AE. Transforming cultural competence into cross-cultural efficacy in women's health education. Acad Med. 2000;75:1071-1080; Brach C, Fraser I. Can cultural competency reduce racial and ethnic health disparities? Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1):181-217; Mayberry RM, Mili F, Ofili E. Racial and ethnic differences in access to medical care. Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1): 108-145; Carillo JE, Green AR, Betancourt JR. Cross-cultural primary care: a patient-based approach. Annal Intern Med. 1999;130:829-834; Lantz PM, House JS, Lepkowski JM, et al. Socioeconomic factor, health behaviors, and mortality: results from a nationally representative prospective study of U.S. adults. JAMA. 1998;279:1703-08; and Culhane-Pera KA, Reif C, Egli E, et al. A curriculum for multicultural education in family practice. Family Medicine. 1997;28:719-723; Boylan M, Culture and medical intervention. Journal of Clinical Ethics. forthcoming, 2004.
33. The exploration of multicultural literacy in clinical practice is a developing area of research. Recent work includes: Kundhal KK. Cultural diversity: an evolving challenge to physician-patient communication. JAMA. 2003; 289:94; Tanne JH. U.S. medical schools should consider race in admitting students. BMJ. 2002;325:565; Tolo V. The challenges of change: is orthopaedics ready? JS&JS. 2002; 84: 1707-1713; the special theme issue of Academic Medicine 77.3 (2002) - especially Fuller K. Eradicating essentialism from cultural competency education; and Green AR, Betancourt JR, Carrilo JE. Integrating social factors into cross-cultural medical education, and Drouin J, Jean P. Educating future physicians for a minority population: a french-language stream at the university of Ottawa, and Hunt LM, Beyond cultural competence. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:3-4, and McCurdy DB. A 'competence' we can't do without.' The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:2, and Barnes L, Harris G. Changing medical landscape. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:7-8. See also: Nuñez AE. Transforming cultural competence into cross-cultural efficacy in women's health education. Acad Med. 2000;75:1071-1080; Brach C, Fraser I. Can cultural competency reduce racial and ethnic health disparities? Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1):181-217; Mayberry RM, Mili F, Ofili E. Racial and ethnic differences in access to medical care. Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1): 108-145; Carillo JE, Green AR, Betancourt JR. Cross-cultural primary care: a patient-based approach. Annal Intern Med. 1999;130:829-834; Lantz PM, House JS, Lepkowski JM, et al. Socioeconomic factor, health behaviors, and mortality: results from a nationally representative prospective study of U.S. adults. JAMA. 1998;279:1703-08; and Culhane-Pera KA, Reif C, Egli E, et al. A curriculum for multicultural education in family practice. Family Medicine. 1997;28:719-723; Boylan M, Culture and medical intervention. Journal of Clinical Ethics. forthcoming, 2004.
34. The exploration of multicultural literacy in clinical practice is a developing area of research. Recent work includes: Kundhal KK. Cultural diversity: an evolving challenge to physician-patient communication. JAMA. 2003; 289:94; Tanne JH. U.S. medical schools should consider race in admitting students. BMJ. 2002;325:565; Tolo V. The challenges of change: is orthopaedics ready? JS&JS. 2002; 84: 1707-1713; the special theme issue of Academic Medicine 77.3 (2002) - especially Fuller K. Eradicating essentialism from cultural competency education; and Green AR, Betancourt JR, Carrilo JE. Integrating social factors into cross-cultural medical education, and Drouin J, Jean P. Educating future physicians for a minority population: a french-language stream at the university of Ottawa, and Hunt LM, Beyond cultural competence. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:3-4, and McCurdy DB. A 'competence' we can't do without.' The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:2, and Barnes L, Harris G. Changing medical landscape. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:7-8. See also: Nuñez AE. Transforming cultural competence into cross-cultural efficacy in women's health education. Acad Med. 2000;75:1071-1080; Brach C, Fraser I. Can cultural competency reduce racial and ethnic health disparities? Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1):181-217; Mayberry RM, Mili F, Ofili E. Racial and ethnic differences in access to medical care. Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1): 108-145; Carillo JE, Green AR, Betancourt JR. Cross-cultural primary care: a patient-based approach. Annal Intern Med. 1999;130:829-834; Lantz PM, House JS, Lepkowski JM, et al. Socioeconomic factor, health behaviors, and mortality: results from a nationally representative prospective study of U.S. adults. JAMA. 1998;279:1703-08; and Culhane-Pera KA, Reif C, Egli E, et al. A curriculum for multicultural education in family practice. Family Medicine. 1997;28:719-723; Boylan M, Culture and medical intervention. Journal of Clinical Ethics. forthcoming, 2004.
35. The exploration of multicultural literacy in clinical practice is a developing area of research. Recent work includes: Kundhal KK. Cultural diversity: an evolving challenge to physician-patient communication. JAMA. 2003; 289:94; Tanne JH. U.S. medical schools should consider race in admitting students. BMJ. 2002;325:565; Tolo V. The challenges of change: is orthopaedics ready? JS&JS. 2002; 84: 1707-1713; the special theme issue of Academic Medicine 77.3 (2002) - especially Fuller K. Eradicating essentialism from cultural competency education; and Green AR, Betancourt JR, Carrilo JE. Integrating social factors into cross-cultural medical education, and Drouin J, Jean P. Educating future physicians for a minority population: a french-language stream at the university of Ottawa, and Hunt LM, Beyond cultural competence. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:3-4, and McCurdy DB. A 'competence' we can't do without.' The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:2, and Barnes L, Harris G. Changing medical landscape. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:7-8. See also: Nuñez AE. Transforming cultural competence into cross-cultural efficacy in women's health education. Acad Med. 2000;75:1071-1080; Brach C, Fraser I. Can cultural competency reduce racial and ethnic health disparities? Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1):181-217; Mayberry RM, Mili F, Ofili E. Racial and ethnic differences in access to medical care. Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1): 108-145; Carillo JE, Green AR, Betancourt JR. Cross-cultural primary care: a patient-based approach. Annal Intern Med. 1999;130:829-834; Lantz PM, House JS, Lepkowski JM, et al. Socioeconomic factor, health behaviors, and mortality: results from a nationally representative prospective study of U.S. adults. JAMA. 1998;279:1703-08; and Culhane-Pera KA, Reif C, Egli E, et al. A curriculum for multicultural education in family practice. Family Medicine. 1997;28:719-723; Boylan M, Culture and medical intervention. Journal of Clinical Ethics. forthcoming, 2004.
36. The exploration of multicultural literacy in clinical practice is a developing area of research. Recent work includes: Kundhal KK. Cultural diversity: an evolving challenge to physician-patient communication. JAMA. 2003; 289:94; Tanne JH. U.S. medical schools should consider race in admitting students. BMJ. 2002;325:565; Tolo V. The challenges of change: is orthopaedics ready? JS&JS. 2002; 84: 1707-1713; the special theme issue of Academic Medicine 77.3 (2002) - especially Fuller K. Eradicating essentialism from cultural competency education; and Green AR, Betancourt JR, Carrilo JE. Integrating social factors into cross-cultural medical education, and Drouin J, Jean P. Educating future physicians for a minority population: a french-language stream at the university of Ottawa, and Hunt LM, Beyond cultural competence. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:3-4, and McCurdy DB. A 'competence' we can't do without.' The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:2, and Barnes L, Harris G. Changing medical landscape. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:7-8. See also: Nuñez AE. Transforming cultural competence into cross-cultural efficacy in women's health education. Acad Med. 2000;75:1071-1080; Brach C, Fraser I. Can cultural competency reduce racial and ethnic health disparities? Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1):181-217; Mayberry RM, Mili F, Ofili E. Racial and ethnic differences in access to medical care. Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1): 108-145; Carillo JE, Green AR, Betancourt JR. Cross-cultural primary care: a patient-based approach. Annal Intern Med. 1999;130:829-834; Lantz PM, House JS, Lepkowski JM, et al. Socioeconomic factor, health behaviors, and mortality: results from a nationally representative prospective study of U.S. adults. JAMA. 1998;279:1703-08; and Culhane-Pera KA, Reif C, Egli E, et al. A curriculum for multicultural education in family practice. Family Medicine. 1997;28:719-723; Boylan M, Culture and medical intervention. Journal of Clinical Ethics. forthcoming, 2004.
37. The exploration of multicultural literacy in clinical practice is a developing area of research. Recent work includes: Kundhal KK. Cultural diversity: an evolving challenge to physician-patient communication. JAMA. 2003; 289:94; Tanne JH. U.S. medical schools should consider race in admitting students. BMJ. 2002;325:565; Tolo V. The challenges of change: is orthopaedics ready? JS&JS. 2002; 84: 1707-1713; the special theme issue of Academic Medicine 77.3 (2002) - especially Fuller K. Eradicating essentialism from cultural competency education; and Green AR, Betancourt JR, Carrilo JE. Integrating social factors into cross-cultural medical education, and Drouin J, Jean P. Educating future physicians for a minority population: a french-language stream at the university of Ottawa, and Hunt LM, Beyond cultural competence. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:3-4, and McCurdy DB. A 'competence' we can't do without.' The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:2, and Barnes L, Harris G. Changing medical landscape. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:7-8. See also: Nuñez AE. Transforming cultural competence into cross-cultural efficacy in women's health education. Acad Med. 2000;75:1071-1080; Brach C, Fraser I. Can cultural competency reduce racial and ethnic health disparities? Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1):181-217; Mayberry RM, Mili F, Ofili E. Racial and ethnic differences in access to medical care. Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1): 108-145; Carillo JE, Green AR, Betancourt JR. Cross-cultural primary care: a patient-based approach. Annal Intern Med. 1999;130:829-834; Lantz PM, House JS, Lepkowski JM, et al. Socioeconomic factor, health behaviors, and mortality: results from a nationally representative prospective study of U.S. adults. JAMA. 1998;279:1703-08; and Culhane-Pera KA, Reif C, Egli E, et al. A curriculum for multicultural education in family practice. Family Medicine. 1997;28:719-723; Boylan M, Culture and medical intervention. Journal of Clinical Ethics. forthcoming, 2004.
38. The exploration of multicultural literacy in clinical practice is a developing area of research. Recent work includes: Kundhal KK. Cultural diversity: an evolving challenge to physician-patient communication. JAMA. 2003; 289:94; Tanne JH. U.S. medical schools should consider race in admitting students. BMJ. 2002;325:565; Tolo V. The challenges of change: is orthopaedics ready? JS&JS. 2002; 84: 1707-1713; the special theme issue of Academic Medicine 77.3 (2002) - especially Fuller K. Eradicating essentialism from cultural competency education; and Green AR, Betancourt JR, Carrilo JE. Integrating social factors into cross-cultural medical education, and Drouin J, Jean P. Educating future physicians for a minority population: a french-language stream at the university of Ottawa, and Hunt LM, Beyond cultural competence. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:3-4, and McCurdy DB. A 'competence' we can't do without.' The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:2, and Barnes L, Harris G. Changing medical landscape. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:7-8. See also: Nuñez AE. Transforming cultural competence into cross-cultural efficacy in women's health education. Acad Med. 2000;75:1071-1080; Brach C, Fraser I. Can cultural competency reduce racial and ethnic health disparities? Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1):181-217; Mayberry RM, Mili F, Ofili E. Racial and ethnic differences in access to medical care. Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1): 108-145; Carillo JE, Green AR, Betancourt JR. Cross-cultural primary care: a patient-based approach. Annal Intern Med. 1999;130:829-834; Lantz PM, House JS, Lepkowski JM, et al. Socioeconomic factor, health behaviors, and mortality: results from a nationally representative prospective study of U.S. adults. JAMA. 1998;279:1703-08; and Culhane-Pera KA, Reif C, Egli E, et al. A curriculum for multicultural education in family practice. Family Medicine. 1997;28:719-723; Boylan M, Culture and medical intervention. Journal of Clinical Ethics. forthcoming, 2004.
39. The exploration of multicultural literacy in clinical practice is a developing area of research. Recent work includes: Kundhal KK. Cultural diversity: an evolving challenge to physician-patient communication. JAMA. 2003; 289:94; Tanne JH. U.S. medical schools should consider race in admitting students. BMJ. 2002;325:565; Tolo V. The challenges of change: is orthopaedics ready? JS&JS. 2002; 84: 1707-1713; the special theme issue of Academic Medicine 77.3 (2002) - especially Fuller K. Eradicating essentialism from cultural competency education; and Green AR, Betancourt JR, Carrilo JE. Integrating social factors into cross-cultural medical education, and Drouin J, Jean P. Educating future physicians for a minority population: a french-language stream at the university of Ottawa, and Hunt LM, Beyond cultural competence. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:3-4, and McCurdy DB. A 'competence' we can't do without.' The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:2, and Barnes L, Harris G. Changing medical landscape. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:7-8. See also: Nuñez AE. Transforming cultural competence into cross-cultural efficacy in women's health education. Acad Med. 2000;75:1071-1080; Brach C, Fraser I. Can cultural competency reduce racial and ethnic health disparities? Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1):181-217; Mayberry RM, Mili F, Ofili E. Racial and ethnic differences in access to medical care. Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1): 108-145; Carillo JE, Green AR, Betancourt JR. Cross-cultural primary care: a patient-based approach. Annal Intern Med. 1999;130:829-834; Lantz PM, House JS, Lepkowski JM, et al. Socioeconomic factor, health behaviors, and mortality: results from a nationally representative prospective study of U.S. adults. JAMA. 1998;279:1703-08; and Culhane-Pera KA, Reif C, Egli E, et al. A curriculum for multicultural education in family practice. Family Medicine. 1997;28:719-723; Boylan M, Culture and medical intervention. Journal of Clinical Ethics. forthcoming, 2004.
40. The exploration of multicultural literacy in clinical practice is a developing area of research. Recent work includes: Kundhal KK. Cultural diversity: an evolving challenge to physician-patient communication. JAMA. 2003; 289:94; Tanne JH. U.S. medical schools should consider race in admitting students. BMJ. 2002;325:565; Tolo V. The challenges of change: is orthopaedics ready? JS&JS. 2002; 84: 1707-1713; the special theme issue of Academic Medicine 77.3 (2002) - especially Fuller K. Eradicating essentialism from cultural competency education; and Green AR, Betancourt JR, Carrilo JE. Integrating social factors into cross-cultural medical education, and Drouin J, Jean P. Educating future physicians for a minority population: a french-language stream at the university of Ottawa, and Hunt LM, Beyond cultural competence. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:3-4, and McCurdy DB. A 'competence' we can't do without.' The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:2, and Barnes L, Harris G. Changing medical landscape. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:7-8. See also: Nuñez AE. Transforming cultural competence into cross-cultural efficacy in women's health education. Acad Med. 2000;75:1071-1080; Brach C, Fraser I. Can cultural competency reduce racial and ethnic health disparities? Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1):181-217; Mayberry RM, Mili F, Ofili E. Racial and ethnic differences in access to medical care. Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1): 108-145; Carillo JE, Green AR, Betancourt JR. Cross-cultural primary care: a patient-based approach. Annal Intern Med. 1999;130:829-834; Lantz PM, House JS, Lepkowski JM, et al. Socioeconomic factor, health behaviors, and mortality: results from a nationally representative prospective study of U.S. adults. JAMA. 1998;279:1703-08; and Culhane-Pera KA, Reif C, Egli E, et al. A curriculum for multicultural education in family practice. Family Medicine. 1997;28:719-723; Boylan M, Culture and medical intervention. Journal of Clinical Ethics. forthcoming, 2004.
41. The exploration of multicultural literacy in clinical practice is a developing area of research. Recent work includes: Kundhal KK. Cultural diversity: an evolving challenge to physician-patient communication. JAMA. 2003; 289:94; Tanne JH. U.S. medical schools should consider race in admitting students. BMJ. 2002;325:565; Tolo V. The challenges of change: is orthopaedics ready? JS&JS. 2002; 84: 1707-1713; the special theme issue of Academic Medicine 77.3 (2002) - especially Fuller K. Eradicating essentialism from cultural competency education; and Green AR, Betancourt JR, Carrilo JE. Integrating social factors into cross-cultural medical education, and Drouin J, Jean P. Educating future physicians for a minority population: a french-language stream at the university of Ottawa, and Hunt LM, Beyond cultural competence. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:3-4, and McCurdy DB. A 'competence' we can't do without.' The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:2, and Barnes L, Harris G. Changing medical landscape. The Park Ridge Center Bulletin. November/December, 2001:7-8. See also: Nuñez AE. Transforming cultural competence into cross-cultural efficacy in women's health education. Acad Med. 2000;75:1071-1080; Brach C, Fraser I. Can cultural competency reduce racial and ethnic health disparities? Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1):181-217; Mayberry RM, Mili F, Ofili E. Racial and ethnic differences in access to medical care. Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(suppl. 1): 108-145; Carillo JE, Green AR, Betancourt JR. Cross-cultural primary care: a patient-based approach. Annal Intern Med. 1999;130:829-834; Lantz PM, House JS, Lepkowski JM, et al. Socioeconomic factor, health behaviors, and mortality: results from a nationally representative prospective study of U.S. adults. JAMA. 1998;279:1703-08; and Culhane-Pera KA, Reif C, Egli E, et al. A curriculum for multicultural education in family practice. Family Medicine. 1997;28:719-723; Boylan M, Culture and medical intervention. Journal of Clinical Ethics. forthcoming, 2004.
42. Compare to Kundhal KK. Cultural diversity: an evolving challenge to physician-patient communication. JAMA. 2003;289:94; Grady D. Not a simple case of health racism. New York Times. November 17, 1999; Cooper-Patrick L, Gallo JJ, Gonzales JJ, et al. Race, gender, and partnership in the patient-physician relationship. JAMA. 1999; 282:583-589.
43. Compare to Kundhal KK. Cultural diversity: an evolving challenge to physician-patient communication. JAMA. 2003;289:94; Grady D. Not a simple case of health racism. New York Times. November 17, 1999; Cooper-Patrick L, Gallo JJ, Gonzales JJ, et al. Race, gender, and partnership in the patient-physician relationship. JAMA. 1999; 282:583-589.
44. Compare to Kundhal KK. Cultural diversity: an evolving challenge to physician-patient communication. JAMA. 2003;289:94; Grady D. Not a simple case of health racism. New York Times. November 17, 1999; Cooper-Patrick L, Gallo JJ, Gonzales JJ, et al. Race, gender, and partnership in the patient-physician relationship. JAMA. 1999; 282:583-589.
45. The model of E.O. Wilson is one of group selection while Dawkins offers an individual selection model. Between these are the kin selection accounts. For group selectionists see: Wilson EO. Sociolobiology: the new synthesis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1975 and Bossert WH, Wilson EO. A primer in population biology. Stanford, CT: Sinauer Associates; 1971. For an exposition of the selfish gene theory see: Dawkins R. The selfish gene. NY: Oxford University Press; 1976, 2nd ed 1989, and The extended phenotype: the long reach of the gene. NY: Oxford University Press; 1982. For an exposition on kin selection see: Smith JM. Group selection and kin selection. Nature. 1964;201:1145-1146 and How to model evolution, in Dupré J, ed. The latest and the best: essays on evolution and optimality. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 1987:119-131.
46. The model of E.O. Wilson is one of group selection while Dawkins offers an individual selection model. Between these are the kin selection accounts. For group selectionists see: Wilson EO. Sociolobiology: the new synthesis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1975 and Bossert WH, Wilson EO. A primer in population biology. Stanford, CT: Sinauer Associates; 1971. For an exposition of the selfish gene theory see: Dawkins R. The selfish gene. NY: Oxford University Press; 1976, 2nd ed 1989, and The extended phenotype: the long reach of the gene. NY: Oxford University Press; 1982. For an exposition on kin selection see: Smith JM. Group selection and kin selection. Nature. 1964;201:1145-1146 and How to model evolution, in Dupré J, ed. The latest and the best: essays on evolution and optimality. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 1987:119-131.
47. The model of E.O. Wilson is one of group selection while Dawkins offers an individual selection model. Between these are the kin selection accounts. For group selectionists see: Wilson EO. Sociolobiology: the new synthesis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1975 and Bossert WH, Wilson EO. A primer in population biology. Stanford, CT: Sinauer Associates; 1971. For an exposition of the selfish gene theory see: Dawkins R. The selfish gene. NY: Oxford University Press; 1976, 2nd ed 1989, and The extended phenotype: the long reach of the gene. NY: Oxford University Press; 1982. For an exposition on kin selection see: Smith JM. Group selection and kin selection. Nature. 1964;201:1145-1146 and How to model evolution, in Dupré J, ed. The latest and the best: essays on evolution and optimality. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 1987:119-131.
48. The model of E.O. Wilson is one of group selection while Dawkins offers an individual selection model. Between these are the kin selection accounts. For group selectionists see: Wilson EO. Sociolobiology: the new synthesis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1975 and Bossert WH, Wilson EO. A primer in population biology. Stanford, CT: Sinauer Associates; 1971. For an exposition of the selfish gene theory see: Dawkins R. The selfish gene. NY: Oxford University Press; 1976, 2nd ed 1989, and The extended phenotype: the long reach of the gene. NY: Oxford University Press; 1982. For an exposition on kin selection see: Smith JM. Group selection and kin selection. Nature. 1964;201:1145-1146 and How to model evolution, in Dupré J, ed. The latest and the best: essays on evolution and optimality. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 1987:119-131.
49. The model of E.O. Wilson is one of group selection while Dawkins offers an individual selection model. Between these are the kin selection accounts. For group selectionists see: Wilson EO. Sociolobiology: the new synthesis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1975 and Bossert WH, Wilson EO. A primer in population biology. Stanford, CT: Sinauer Associates; 1971. For an exposition of the selfish gene theory see: Dawkins R. The selfish gene. NY: Oxford University Press; 1976, 2nd ed 1989, and The extended phenotype: the long reach of the gene. NY: Oxford University Press; 1982. For an exposition on kin selection see: Smith JM. Group selection and kin selection. Nature. 1964;201:1145-1146 and How to model evolution, in Dupré J, ed. The latest and the best: essays on evolution and optimality. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 1987:119-131.
50. The model of E.O. Wilson is one of group selection while Dawkins offers an individual selection model. Between these are the kin selection accounts. For group selectionists see: Wilson EO. Sociolobiology: the new synthesis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1975 and Bossert WH, Wilson EO. A primer in population biology. Stanford, CT: Sinauer Associates; 1971. For an exposition of the selfish gene theory see: Dawkins R. The selfish gene. NY: Oxford University Press; 1976, 2nd ed 1989, and The extended phenotype: the long reach of the gene. NY: Oxford University Press; 1982. For an exposition on kin selection see: Smith JM. Group selection and kin selection. Nature. 1964;201:1145-1146 and How to model evolution, in Dupré J, ed. The latest and the best: essays on evolution and optimality. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 1987:119-131.
51. Sober E, Wilson DS. Unto others: the evolution and psychology of unselfish behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1998.
52. One variant upon this argument is the position that "race" is not a robust social or biological classification. The authors of this essay tend toward this direction with the caveat that among most of American society this is certainly not the case. For this reason, we will assume the existence of race for practical purposes. However, in reality, homo sapiens is the only robust category for a species (under the traditional definition: capable of inter-reproduction). Other accidental differences exist for the artificial purpose of subjugating another for selfish purposes.
53. By "infrastructure" it is meant the social landscape of what it means to exist in America during the present age. For example, the rise of computer applications during the 1990s made a big difference in the intra-structure of the United States. Those plugged into the information economy profited mightily. Those without these resources became poorer. By "exo-structure" it is meant the social landscape of what it means for America to exist in the world. When the communist Soviet Union fell in the late 1980s the international climate changed radically. The same might be said about the terrorist attack of 9/11/01 in New York and Washington, DC.
54. This point is often argued from different vantage points. For a range of these see: Sloan and Wilson, op cit., Owen DS. Habermas's developmental logic thesis: universal or eurocentric? Philosophy Today. 1998;42 supp.:104-161; Strydom P. Sociological evolution or social evolution of practical reason: Eder's critique of Habermas. Praxis International. 1993;13:304-322: Fara P, Gathercole P, Laskey R. The changing world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1996.
55. This point is often argued from different vantage points. For a range of these see: Sloan and Wilson, op cit., Owen DS. Habermas's developmental logic thesis: universal or eurocentric? Philosophy Today. 1998;42 supp.:104-161; Strydom P. Sociological evolution or social evolution of practical reason: Eder's critique of Habermas. Praxis International. 1993;13:304-322: Fara P, Gathercole P, Laskey R. The changing world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1996.
56. This point is often argued from different vantage points. For a range of these see: Sloan and Wilson, op cit., Owen DS. Habermas's developmental logic thesis: universal or eurocentric? Philosophy Today. 1998;42 supp.:104-161; Strydom P. Sociological evolution or social evolution of practical reason: Eder's critique of Habermas. Praxis International. 1993;13:304-322: Fara P, Gathercole P, Laskey R. The changing world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1996.
57. This point is often argued from different vantage points. For a range of these see: Sloan and Wilson, op cit., Owen DS. Habermas's developmental logic thesis: universal or eurocentric? Philosophy Today. 1998;42 supp.:104-161; Strydom P. Sociological evolution or social evolution of practical reason: Eder's critique of Habermas. Praxis International. 1993;13:304-322: Fara P, Gathercole P, Laskey R. The changing world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1996.
58. Others who have made similar claims include: Rogers C. Leading the way: mentors help minorities cross barriers to careers. AAOS Bulletin. 1999:43-44; Miller RS, Dunn MR, Richter T. Graduate medical education: 1998-1999. JAMA. 1999;282:855-860; Simon MA. Racial, ethnic, and gender diversity and the resident operative experience. Clin Orthop. 1999;360: 253-259.
59. Others who have made similar claims include: Rogers C. Leading the way: mentors help minorities cross barriers to careers. AAOS Bulletin. 1999:43-44; Miller RS, Dunn MR, Richter T. Graduate medical education: 1998-1999. JAMA. 1999;282:855-860; Simon MA. Racial, ethnic, and gender diversity and the resident operative experience. Clin Orthop. 1999;360: 253-259.
60. Others who have made similar claims include: Rogers C. Leading the way: mentors help minorities cross barriers to careers. AAOS Bulletin. 1999:43-44; Miller RS, Dunn MR, Richter T. Graduate medical education: 1998-1999. JAMA. 1999;282:855-860; Simon MA. Racial, ethnic, and gender diversity and the resident operative experience. Clin Orthop. 1999;360: 253-259.