Jathika Hela Urumaya and ethno-religious politics in Sri Lanka

Pacific Affairs

Volumn 81, Issue 1, 2008, Pages 31-51

  DeVotta, Neil ^a   Stone, Jason ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN   (United States)

^b Hartwick College   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CIVIL WAR; ELECTION; ETHNOPOLITICS; NATIONALISM; PARTY POLITICS; PEACE PROCESS; POLITICAL PARTICIPATION; RELIGION;

ASIA; EURASIA; SOUTH ASIA; SRI LANKA;

EID: 48049083303     PISSN: 0030851X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5509/200881131     Document Type: Article

References (80)

1. Jonathan Fox, Ethnoreligious Conflict in the Late Twentieth Century: A General Theory (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2002), p. 56;
2. Samuel Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of the World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), p. 54.
3. Mark Juergensmeyer, The New Cold War? Religious Nationalism Confronts the Secular State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), pp. 1-2.
4. Fox, Ethnoreligious Conflict, pp. 1, 39.
5. See, for example, Tessa J. Bartholomeusz, In Defense of Dharma: Just-War Ideology in Buddhist Sri Lanka (London: Routledge Curzon, 2002);
6. Tessa J. Bartholomeusz and Chandra R. de Silva, eds., Buddhist Fundamentalism and Minority Identities in Sri Lanka (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1998);
7. George D. Bond, The Buddhist Revival in Sri Lanka: Religious Tradition, Reinterpretation, and Response (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, 1988);
8. Mahinda Deegalle, ed., Buddhism, Conflict and Violence in Modern Sri Lanka (London: Roudedge, 2006);
9. K.N.O. Dharmadasa, Language, Religion, and Ethnic Assertiveness: The Growth of Sinhalese Nationalism in Sri Lanka (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992);
10. Richard Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism: A Social History From Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd, 1988);
11. Richard Gombrich and Gananath Obeyesekere, Buddhism Transformed: Religious Change in Sri Lanka (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988);
12. David Little, Sri Lanka: The Invention of Enmity, Series on Religion, Nationalism, and Intolerance (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1994);
13. Kitsiri Malalgoda, Buddhism in Sinhalese Society 1750-1900: A Study of Religious Revival and Change (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976);
14. Urmila Phadnis, Religion and Politics in Sri Lanka (Columbia, MO: South Asia Books, 1976);
15. H.L. Seneviratne, The Work of Kings: The New Buddhism in Sri Lanka (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999);
16. Stanley J. Tambiah, Buddhism Betrayed?: Religion, Politics, and Violence in Sri Lanka (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992);
17. Neil DeVotta, Sinhalese Buddhist Nationalist Ideology: Implications for Politics and Conflict Resolution in Sri Lanka, Policy Studies 40 (Washington, DC: East-West Center, 2007).
18. According to the last all-island census conducted in 1981, the country's ethnic breakdown was as follows: Sinhalese 73.95 percent; Sri Lankan Tamils 12.7 percent; Indian Tamils 5.52 percent; Moors (Muslims) 7.05 percent; others 0.77 percent. The Indian Tamils were brought in during colonial times to work as indentured labourers on tea plantations. While many sympathize with the Sri Lankan Tamils' separatist struggle, they are not a part of it. Close to one million Sri Lankan Tamils have left the island since 1983 and some estimates place their current number in Sri Lanka between 8 percent and 9 percent. The 1981 census estimated the religious breakdown as follows: 69.3 percent Buddhist; 15.48 percent Hindu; 7.61 percent Christian; and 7.55 percent Muslim. The Muslims speak the Tamil language but use religion as their primary identity marker, thus effectively differentiating themselves from the Tamils. The Sinhalese are mostly Buddhist while the Tamils ate mainly Hindu. Approximately 10 percent of Sinhalese and 8 percent of Tamils are Christian, with most being Roman Catholic. Thus while it is common to see Tamil and Sinhalese Christians, one today rarely sees Sinhalese Hindus and Tamil Buddhists.
19. Peter Schalk, "Operationalizing Buddhism for Political Ends in a Martial Context in Sri Lanka: The Case of Simhalatva," injohn R. Hinnells and Richard King, eds., Religion and Violence in South Asia: Theory and Practice (New York: Routledge, 2007);
20. Tambiah, Buddhism Betrayed?.
21. There is a hierarchy within the respective nikayas and a monk's status may influence a hard-line political stance. Likewise, senior monks within a nikaya can exercise influence over their juniors. But there is no hierarchy within the sangha, although the Supreme Advisory Council President Ranasinghe Premadasa created in 1990 has allowed monks to better organize across nikaya lines. See Chandra R. de Silva and Tessa Bartholomeusz, The Role of the Sangha in the Reconciliation Process, Marga Monograph Series on Ethnic Reconciliation no. 16 (Colombo: Marga Institute, 2001), pp. 17-18.
22. In May 1985 the LTTE attacked Buddhist monks and lay worshippers at the Shri Maha Bodhi, one of the most sacred sites in Buddhism. In June 1987 the group also killed 33 Buddhist clergy in Amparai. In January 1998 the LTTE attacked the Temple of the Tooth in Kandy. While many Buddhist monks adopted ethnocentric positions and helped create conditions that led to civil war, these attacks against bhikkhus and Buddhist places of worship have only made the Buddhist clergy loathe the LTTE all the more and call for a military solution to the ethnic conflict. Indeed, some bhikkhus have even asked the military to mutiny and continue to wage war if ever the political leadership settled for peace. Many Buddhists find this disconcerting. Thus the Sunday Observer recently noted that it was frightening "to observe the insouciance with which the most revered prelates of the Maha Sangha talk of... recourse to arms." See "The Maha Sangha and the Nation," cited online 19 March 2000, , accessed 19 March, 2000.
23. For an example supporting mutiny, see Lakshman Gunasekara, "Sangha Militancy - Wielding Dutugemunu's Spear," Sunday Observer, cited online 9 April 2000, , accessed 9 April 2000.
24. The July 2006 interviews were conducted mainly at the University of Colombo, the University of Kelaniya and the Sri Jayewardenepura University, while less structured discussions were also conducted with a few monks in Colombo and Kandy at various times. A total of 21 interviews were conducted at the three universities, and they covered a spectrum of issues, including the JHU, devolution, LTTE terrorism and the widespread Buddhist belief that Sri Lanka is the repository for Sinhalese Buddhists. Admittedly, the sample used here is not random. The interviews, however, partly confirm Chandra R. de Silva's findings that many among the sangha harbour diverse opinions, although they may not often voice those opinions in public. See Chandra R. de Silva, "The Plurality of Buddhist Fundamentalism: An Inquiry into Views among Buddhist Monks in Sri Lanka," in Buddhist Fundamentalism and Minority Identities, pp. 53-73.
25. Tessa Bartholomeusz and Chandra R. de Silva, "Buddhist Fundamentalism and Identity in Sri Lanka," in Buddhist Fundamentalism and Minority Identities, p. 4.
26. Gananath Obeyesekere, "The Vicissitudes of the Sinhala-Buddhist Identity through Time and Change," in Michael Roberts, ed., Sri Lanka: Collective Identities Revisited, vol. 1 (Colombo: Marga Institute, 1997), pp. 355-84;
27. Steven Kemper, The Presence of the Past: Chronicles, Politics, and Culture in Sinhala Life (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991);
28. Neil DeVotta, Sinhalese Buddhist Nationalist Ideology.
29. Dharmapala was born Don David Hewavitarana but changed his name (to mean "homeless guardian of the Dharma") in an attempt to bridge the gap between the homeless bhikkhu's traditional role and his new vision of an activist Buddhist community. To review some of his voluminous writings, see Ananda Guruge, ed., Return to Righteousness: A Collection of Speeches, Essays, and Letters of the Anagarika Dharmapala (Colombo: Ministry of Education and Cultural Affairs, 1965).
30. For Rahula's influence on the modern political bhikkhu see Seneviratne, The Work of Kings;
31. Ananda Abeysekera, Colors of the Robe: Religion, Identity, and Difference (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2002).
32. Quoted in Roshan Peiris, "Rahula Hits Back," Sunday Times, cited online 5 May 1996, available from
33. Neil DeVotta, "Sri Lanka's Political Decay: Analysing the October 2000 and December 2001 Parliamentary Elections," Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, vol. 41, no. 2 (2003), p. 126.
34. See The Island, "Sihala Urumaya Not Racist," cited online 17 September 2000, available from .
35. Indeed, until recently the JHU's Web page not only provided a link to Gangodawilla Soma's biography, but it also posted certain newspaper articles and documents that claimed the monk was murdered as part of a Christian conspiracy to undermine Buddhism. Currently the Web page merely features a photo of Soma Thera at the very top of the page. The party's Web page is accessible at .
36. Frederica Jansz, "Church Attacks Gather Momentum," Sunday Leader, cited online 15 February 2004, available from
37. Mangala Samaraweera, a leading minister in President Chandrika Kumaratunga's government, was the first to vilify the Norwegians in such fashion. See BBC News, "Norwegians - 'Salmon-Eating Busy-bodies,'" cited online 30 May 2003, available from .
38. The proposals are available from Daily Mirror, cited online 1 June 2007, available from
39. Nirupama Subramanian, "Arithmetic and Alliances," The Hindu, cited online 26 March 2004, available from .
40. Alladin Hussein, "'Honor the Priesthood, Don't Contest the Election' Mahanayaka tells Buddhist Monks," The Lanka Academic, cited online 26 October 2006, available from .
41. Amal Jayasinghe, "Buddhists Monk About with Sri Lankan Politics," Independent Online, cited online 26 October 2006, available from .
42. For instance, in its Proposals to the All Party Representative Committee for Re-structuring the Sri Lankan State, the JHU claims that "The true homeland of Tamils is ... Tamilnadu ... in India.... Hence Tamils are a 'nation' in Tamilnadu but are only an ethnic minority community in Sri Lanka." The claim not only disregards the longstanding Tamil presence in Sri Lanka, it also reiterates the Sinhalese Buddhist belief in sihadipa and dhammadipa, See the Daily Mirror, "Jathika Hela Urumaya Proposals," cited online, 1 June 2007, available from
43. The Island, "JVP and JHU, the Winners," cited online 8 April 2004, available from .
44. The following is part of a letter, dated 15 February 1999 and written in Sinhala by Manel Jayawardene - a lecturer (now retired) at the University of Kelaniya's Post-Graduate Institute of Pali and Buddhist Studies - that highlights Soma Thera's popularity among urban Buddhists: "Now amma [mother] and loku amma [aunt] have created a temporary shrine ... and they worship using flowers, lamps, and symbolic alms. They have found happiness doing so [and] the reason for this is Reverend Soma's sermons .... These sermons appeal to [even] young minds. He criticizes the novel rituals and rejects praying to numerous gods. He highlights the facts in the dhamma necessary to live a simple, moral life. He reiterates the value of respecting parents and distancing ourselves from ... immoral activities. Amma listens to the sermons on TV. When we visit she asks whether we too listened, and we discuss what was said .... For nearly a week the sermons were cancelled on Rupavahini [the state-owned television station] because Soma Thera criticized those following Hindu gods and Sai Baba. But the prohibition was removed given the high demand for his sermons. I wrote to tell you that [thanks to Soma Thera] all at home have embraced the path of dhamma and are finding happiness through that." We thank Sandya Hewamanne for sharing this correspondence.
45. The authors thank Soma Hewamanne of Boralesgamuwa for relating this episode.
46. A separate bill opposed to proselytizing (and popularly called the "government's bill") has also been tabled in parliament, with the nationalist Prime Minister Ramasiri Wickremanayake its main sponsor. This essay, however, only deals with the JHU's proposed legislation.
47. P.K. Balachanddran, "Anti-Christian 'Nationalism' Creates Debilitating Fissures in Lankan Society," Hindustan Times, cited online 4 February 2004, , accessed 2 February 2004.
48. US Department of State, Bureau of Democracy Human Rights, and Labor, Sri Lanka: Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - 2003, cited online 25 February 2004, available from . In one instance, a group of nine Buddhist monks led a mob to a church house in Piliyandala, a predominantly Sinhalese Buddhist town about 12 miles south of Colombo. Later that night a grenade was thrown into the pastor's adjoining home. Author interview with Reverend Anton Ratnaraja, Worship Tabernacle, Piliyandala, 1 February 2007.
49. The full text of the bill is available from .
50. Reverend Dr. Dhammajothi Thera, interview by author, University of Colombo, 14 July 2006.
51. Venerable Elamaldemya Sarananda, interview by author, Sri Jayewardenepura University, 26 July 2006. Most monks fail to distinguish between Catholics and Christian sects, and Venerable Elamaldeniya Sarananda and Dammajothi Thera (in the above footnote) seem to have the same problem. The Catholic clergy in Sri Lanka is extremely sensitive toward Buddhist sensibilities and do not proselytize conspicuously. Indeed, the Catholic hierarchy in Sri Lanka has come out strongly against the missionary activities of foreign evangelicals because Catholics too are converting in great numbers to the more charismatic evangelical sects. This, however, has not prevented Buddhist nationalists from attacking Catholic churches.
52. The full text of the amendment is available from .
53. The ruling against the JHUs bill notwithstanding, the present court especially is sympathetic to the majority community's superordinating agenda. Thus, for instance, the court has ruled that the 1987 merger of the Northern and Eastern Provinces - an arrangement supported by India, the international community, and Sri Lankas Tamils - is invalid because it violates the fundamental democratic rights of those in the east who have hitherto failed to elect a Provincial Council to represent them. It has also ruled that while minorities (read Christians) have a right to practice their religion, they do not have a right to propagate their religion. Recently, the court further ruled to disallow Christian organizations combining religious instruction with charity from incorporating, although it has permitted 178 Buddhist and Muslim organizations to dojust that! See Frederica Jansz, "Church Attacks Gather Momentum," Sunday Leader, cited online 15 February 2004, available from
54. See Amantha Perera, "Politics Kills Equity in Local Reconstruction Effort," and Jamila Najmuddin, "UN Report Calls for Policy Changes," in Sunday Leader, cited online 31 December 2006, available from .
55. Gangodawilla Soma created a huge controversy by broaching this issue a few years before his death. See P.K. Balachanddran, "Buddhist Monk Feels the Heat for Theory of Hindu-Muslim Takeover of Lanka," The Hindustan Times, cited online 29 August 1999, , accessed 5 September 1999.
56. They justify this by arguing that a larger Buddhist population would enable more people to consider joining the Buddhist clergy and military and to also perpetuate a Sinhalese Buddhist majority. See Sunday Times, "Go Forth and Produce," cited online 29 August 2004, available from ;
57. Frances Harrison, "Sri Lankans Urged to Multiply for War," BBC News, cited online 19 June 2001, available from ;
58. The Island, "Family Planning Hampering Buddhism - Ratnasiri," cited online 23 August 2004, available from .
59. Quoted in Isuri Kaviratne, "JHU Leader Warns of AIDS Plot against Monks," Sunday Times, cited online 19 August 2007, available from .
60. This is further exemplified by the following comment by a JHU leader: "There is a great conspiracy for the Tamils from the North to link with Tamils in the East, with the Indian Tamils in the estates and with the Tamils in Colombo and trap the Sinhalese on the island. Add to this the 50 or is it 70 million Tamils of South India [who] are all waiting to swim over." Quoted in Tisaranee Gunasekara, "Chasms," The Island, cited online 16 September 2007, available from .
61. Venerable Dr. K. Mahinda Sangharakkhita, interview by author, Kelaniya Royal Temple, 24 July 2006. It is interesting to note here that while some monks seek to create the position of a monastic leader to prevent their counterparts from entering parliament, they must nevertheless do so by resorting to politics.
62. Reverend Udawela Kolitha, interview by author, University of Colombo, 12 July 2006.
63. Venerable G. Dhammananda, interview by author, University of Kelaniya, 18 July 2006.
64. Neil DeVotta, Blowback: Linguistic Nationalism, Institutional Decay, and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004);
65. Stanley J. Tambiah, Sri Lanka: Ethnic Fratricide and the Dismantling of Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986);
66. A. Jeyaratnam Wilson, Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism: Its Origins and Development in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2000);
67. M.R. Narayan Swamy, Tigers of Lanka: From Boys to Guerrillas (Delhi: Konark Publishers Pvt Ltd., 1994).
68. Reverend Udawela Kolitha, interview by author, University of Colombo, 12 July 2006.
69. Venerable Navagamuwa Levatha, interview by author, University of Kelaniya, 18 July 2006.
70. Bartholomeusz, In Defense of Dharma.
71. The Economist, "A War Strange as Fiction," 9 June 2007, p. 26.
72. Sunday Leader, "And Then They Came for Me ...." cited online June 2007, available from
73. Daily Mirror, "The JHU and Luxury Vehicles," cited online 19 July 2007, available from .
74. Reverend Kumbuka Chandaloka, interview by author, University of Sri Jayewardene pura, 26 July 2006.
75. Sunday Leader, "In Dire Straits," cited online 20 June 2006, available from
76. Off the record interview by author, Colombo, 5 August 2006.
77. The term is sometimes used at public meetings and among lay persons hostile toward the JHU. See, for example, Lanka Academic, "Government Continues to Show Very Little Respect to its Buddhist Monks," cited online 25 April 2004, .
78. Mahinda Deegalle, "JHU Politics for Peace and a Righteous State," in Buddhism, Conflict, and Violence, p. 234.
79. For an excellent essay on Hindutva, see Robert L. Hardgrave, Jr., "Hindu Nationalism and the BJP: Transforming Religion and Politics in India," in Rafiq Dossani and Henry S. Rowen, eds., Prospects for Peace in South Asia (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005).
80. Scott Thomas, The Global Resurgence of Religion and the Transformation of International Relations: The Struggle for the Soul of the Twenty-First Century (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), pp. 39-40.