North American Encephalitic Arboviruses

Neurologic Clinics

Volumn 26, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 727-757

  Davis, Larry E ^a,b   Beckham, J David ^c,d   Tyler, Kenneth L ^c,d  

^a NEW MEXICO VA HEALTH CARE SYSTEM   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NEW MEXICO SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

^d VETERANS AFFAIRS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ALPHA INTERFERON; ALPHA2B INTERFERON; ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; ANTIPYRETIC AGENT; ANTISENSE OLIGOMER DERIVATIVE; ANTIVIRUS AGENT; CHIMERIVAX; IMMUNOGLOBULIN; IMMUNOGLOBULIN M ANTIBODY; INTERFERON; MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; RIBAVIRIN; VENEZUELAN EQUINE ENCEPHALITIS VIRUS VACCINE; VIRUS VACCINE; WEST NILE VACCINE; YELLOW FEVER VACCINE;

ARBOVIRUS; CEREBROSPINAL FLUID; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COLORADO TICK FEVER; COLORADO TICK FEVER VIRUS; DENGUE; DENGUE VIRUS; DISEASE CARRIER; DISEASE SEVERITY; DRUG BINDING; DRUG EFFICACY; EASTERN EQUINE ENCEPHALOMYELITIS VIRUS; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM; ENCEPHALOMYELITIS; ENZYME LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY; EPIDEMIC ENCEPHALITIS; FLACCID PARALYSIS; FLU LIKE SYNDROME; HUMAN; INFECTION RISK; INTRACRANIAL PRESSURE; JAPANESE ENCEPHALITIS VIRUS; LABORATORY TEST; MORTALITY; MYELITIS; NONHUMAN; NORTH AMERICA; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PATHOGENESIS; POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; PROPHYLAXIS; REVIEW; SEIZURE; ST LOUIS FLAVIVIRUS; TICK BORNE ENCEPHALITIS; TICK BORNE ENCEPHALITIS FLAVIVIRUS; VENEZUELAN EQUINE ENCEPHALOMYELITIS ALPHAVIRUS; VIRUS INFECTION; VIRUS MENINGITIS; VIRUS TRANSMISSION; WEST NILE FLAVIVIRUS; WESTERN EQUINE ENCEPHALOMYELITIS ALPHAVIRUS; YELLOW FEVER; YELLOW FEVER FLAVIVIRUS;

ARBOVIRUS INFECTIONS; BRAIN; ENCEPHALITIS, VIRAL; ENCEPHALOMYELITIS, EASTERN EQUINE; HUMANS; MENINGITIS, VIRAL; WEST NILE FEVER;

EID: 47849115323     PISSN: 07338619     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ncl.2008.03.012     Document Type: Review

References (115)

1. Calisher C.H. Medically important arboviruses of the United States and Canada. Clin Microbiol Rev 7 (1994) 89-116
2. Condit R.C. Principles of virology. Fields virology. 5th edition (2007), Wolters Kluwer-Lippincott William & Wilkins, Philadelphia 25-57
3. Roehrig J.T., Staudinger L.A., Hunt A.R., et al. Antibody prophylaxis and therapy for flavivirus encephalitis infections. Ann N Y Acad Sci 951 (2001) 286-297
4. Day J.F. Predicting St. Louis encephalitis virus epidemics: lessons from recent, and not so recent, outbreaks. Annu Rev Entomol 46 (2001) 111-138
5. Pealer L., Marfin A., Petersen L., et al. Transmission of West Nile virus through blood transfusion in the United States in 2002. N Engl J Med 349 (2003) 1236-1245
6. Iwamoto M., Jernigan D., Guasch A., et al. Transmission of West Nile virus from an organ donor to four transplant recipients. N Engl J Med 348 (2003) 2196-2203
7. CDC. Possible West Nile virus transmission to an infant through breast-feeding-Michigan 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 51 (2002) 877-878
8. CDC. Intrauterine West Nile virus infection-New York 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 51 (2002) 1135-1136
9. Girard Y.A., Klingeler K.A., and Higgs S. West Nile virus dissemination and tissue tropisms in orally infected Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 4 (2004) 109-122
10. Van Landingham D.L., Schneider B.S., Klinger K., et al. Real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction quantification of West Nile virus transmitted by Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 71 (2004) 120-123
11. Davis L.E., DeBiasi R., Goade D.E., et al. West Nile virus neuroinvasive disease. Ann Neurol 60 (2006) 286-300
12. Nasci R., Savage H., White D., et al. West Nile virus in overwintering Culex mosquitoes, New York City, 2000. Emerg Infect Dis 7 (2001) 742-744
13. Miller B., Nasci R., Godsey M., et al. First field evidence for natural vertical transmission of West Nile virus in Culex univittatus complex mosquitoes from Rift Valley Province, Kenya. Am J Trop Med Hyg 62 (2000) 240-246
14. Costero A., and Grayson M.A. Experimental transmission of Powassan virus (Flaviviridae) by Ixodes scapularis ticks (Acari:Ixodidae). Am J Trop Med Hyg 55 (1996) 536-546
15. Turell M., O'Guinn M., and Oliver J. Potential for New York Mosquitoes to transmit West Nile virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 62 (2000) 413-414
16. Komar N., Langevin S., Hinten S., et al. Experimental infection of North American birds with New York 1999 strain of West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 9 (2003) 311-322
17. Komar N., Lanciotti R., Bowen R., et al. Detection of West Nile virus in oral and cloacal swabs collected from bird carcasses. Emerg Infect Dis 8 (2002) 741-742
18. Steele K.E., Linn M.J., Schoepp R.J., et al. Pathology of fatal West Nile virus infections in native and exotic birds during the 1999 outbreak in New York City, New York. Vet Pathol 37 (2000) 208-224
19. Chambers T.J., and Diamond M.S. Pathogenesis of flavivirus encephalitis. Adv Virus Res 60 (2003) 273-342
20. Guarner J., Shieh W., Hunter S., et al. Clinicopathologic study and laboratory diagnosis of 23 cases with West Nile virus encephalomyelitis. Hum Pathol 35 (2004) 983-990
21. Solomon T. Flavivirus encephalitis. N Engl J Med 351 (2004) 370-378
22. Samuel M.A., Morrey J.D., and Diamond M.S. Caspase 3-dependent cell death of neurons contributes to the pathogenesis of West Nile virus encephalitis. J Virol 81 (2007) 2614-2623
23. Ohtaki E., Matsuishi T., Hirano Y., et al. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis after treatment with Japanese B encephalitis vaccine. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 59 (1995) 316-317
24. Sejvar J.J., Bode A.V., Curiel M., et al. Post-infectious encephalomyelitis associated with St. Louis encephalitis virus infection. Neurology 63 (2004) 1719-1721
25. Fratkin J., Leis A., Stokic D., et al. Spinal cord neuropathology in human West Nile virus infection. Arch Pathol Lab Med 128 (2004) 533-537
26. + T cells mediate recovery and immunopathology in West Nile virus encephalitis. J Virol 77 (2003) 13323-13334
27. + T cells in control of West Nile virus infection. J Virol 78 (2004) 8312-8321
28. Shrestha B., Wang T., Samuel M.A., et al. Gamma interferon plays a crucial early antiviral role in protection against West Nile virus infection. J Virol 80 (2006) 5338-5348
29. + T cells require perforin to clear West Nile virus from infected neurons. J Virol 80 (2006) 119-129
30. + T-cell responses are required for clearance of West Nile virus from the central nervous system. J Virol 80 (2006) 12060-12069
31. Purtha W.E., Myers N., Mitaksov V., et al. Antigen-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes protect against lethal West Nile virus encephalitis. Eur J Immunol 37 (2007) 1845-1854
32. Kleinman S., Glynn S.A., Busch M., et al. The 2003 West Nile virus United States epidemic: the America's Blood Centers experience. Transfusion 45 (2005) 469-479
33. Sejvar J., Haddad M., Tierney B., et al. Neurologic manifestations and outcome of West Nile virus infection. JAMA 290 (2003) 511-515
34. Khairallah M., Ben Yahia S., Ladjimi A., et al. Chorioretinal involvement in patients with West Nile virus infection. Ophthalmology 111 (2004) 2065-2070
35. Sejvar J.J., Bode A.V., Marfin A.A., et al. West Nile virus-associated flaccid paralysis. Emerg Infect Dis 11 (2005) 1021-1027
36. Tyler K.L., Pape J., Goody R.J., et al. CSF findings in 250 patients with serologically confirmed West Nile virus meningitis and encephalitis. Neurology 66 (2006) 361-365
37. Gandelman-Marton R., Kimiagar I., Itzhaki A., et al. Electroencephalography findings in adult patients with West Nile virus-associated meningitis and meningoencephalitis. Clin Infect Dis 37 (2003) 1573-1578
38. Al-Shekhlee A., and Katirji B. Electrodiagnostic features of acute paralytic poliomyelitis associated with West Nile virus infection. Muscle Nerve 29 (2004) 376-380
39. Shi P.-Y., and Wong S.J. Serologic diagnosis of West Nile virus infection. Expert Rev Mol Diagn 3 (2003) 733-741
40. Roehrig J.T., Nash D., Maldin B., et al. Persistence of virus-reactive serum immunoglobulin M antibody in confirmed West Nile virus encephalitis cases. Emerg Infect Dis 9 (2003) 376-379
41. Brooks T.J., and Phillpotts R.J. Interferon-alpha protects mice against lethal infection with St Louis encephalitis virus delivered by the aerosol and subcutaneous routes. Antiviral Res 41 (1999) 57-64
42. Jordan I., Briese T., Fischer N., et al. Ribavirin inhibits West Nile virus replication and cytopathic effect in neural cells. J Infect Dis 182 (2000) 1214-1217
43. Kimura-Kuroda J., and Yasui K. Protection of mice against Japanese encephalitis virus by passive administration with monoclonal antibodies. J Immunol 141 (1988) 3606-3610
44. Morrey J.D., Siddharthan V., Olsen A.L., et al. Defining limits of treatment with humanized neutralizing monoclonal antibody for West Nile virus neurological infection in a hamster model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 51 (2007) 2396-2402
45. Ben-Nathan D., Lustig S., Tam G., et al. Prophylactic and therapeutic efficacy of human intravenous immunoglobulin in treating West Nile virus infection in mice. J Infect Dis 188 (2003) 5-12
46. Bia F.J., Thornton G.F., Main A.J., et al. Western equine encephalitis mimicking herpes simplex encephalitis. JAMA 244 (1980) 367-369
47. Deas T.S., Binduga-Gajewska I., Tilgner M., et al. Inhibition of flavivirus infections by antisense oligomers specifically suppressing viral translation and RNA replication. J Virol 79 (2005) 4599-4609
48. Tesh R.B., Travassos da Rosa R.P., Guzman H., et al. Immunization with heterologous flaviviruses protective against fatal West Nile encephalitis. Emerg Infect Dis 8 (2002) 245-251
49. Kanesa-Thasan N., Putnak J.R., Mangiafico J.A., et al. Absence of protective neutralizing antibodies to West Nile virus in subjects following vaccination with Japanese encephalitis or dengue vaccines. Am J Trop Med Hyg 66 (2002) 115-116
50. Levy C. West Nile virus in Arizona. Available at:. www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/westnile/conf/2005pdf/AZWNVUpdateCraigLevyVersi on.pdf Accessed August 20, 2007
51. CDC. Arboviral encephalitis. Available at:. http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/arbor/ Accessed August 21, 2007
52. Fradin M.S., and Day J.F. Comparative efficacy of insect repellents against mosquito bites. N Engl J Med 347 (2002) 13-18
53. DeBiasi R.L., and Tyler K.L. West Nile virus meningoencephalitis. Nat Clin Pract Neurol 2 (2006) 264-275
54. Bode A.V., Sejvar J.J., Pape W.J., et al. West Nile virus disease: a descriptive study of 228 patients hospitalized in a 4-county region of Colorado in 2003. Clin Infect Dis 42 (2006) 1234-1240
55. Kramer L.D., Li J., and Shi P.Y. West Nile virus. Lancet Neurol 6 (2007) 171-181
56. Sejvar J.J. The long-term outcomes of human West Nile virus infection. Clin Infect Dis 44 (2007) 1617-1624
57. Bakri S.J., and Kaiser P.K. Ocular manifestations of West Nile virus. Curr Opin Ophthalmol 15 (2004) 537-540
58. Kleinschmidt-DeMasters B.K., Marder B.A., Levi M.E., et al. Naturally acquired West Nile virus encephalomyelitis in transplant recipients: clinical, laboratory, diagnostic, and neuropathological features. Arch Neurol 61 (2004) 1210-1220
59. Weiss D., Carr D., Kellachan J., et al. Clinical findings of West Nile virus infection in hospitalized patients, New York and New Jersey, 2000. Emerg Infect Dis 7 (2001) 654-658
60. Petropoulou K.A., Gordon S.M., Prayson R.A., et al. West Nile virus meningoencephalitis: MR imaging findings. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 26 (2005) 1986-1995
61. Ali M., Safriel Y., Sohi J., et al. West Nile virus infection: MR imaging findings in the nervous system. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 26 (2005) 289-297
62. Armah H.B., Wang G., Omalu B.I., et al. Systemic distribution of West Nile virus infection: Postmortem immunohistochemical study of six cases. Brain Pathol 17 (2007) 345-362
63. Lanciotti R.S., Kerst A.J., Nasci R.S., et al. Rapid detection of West Nile virus from human clinical specimens, field collected mosquitoes, and avian samples by a TaqMan reverse transcriptase-PCR assay. J Clin Microbiol 38 (2000) 4066-4071
64. Monath T.P., Liu J., Kanesa-Thasan N., et al. A live, attenuated recombinant West Nile virus vaccine. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103 (2006) 6694-6699
65. Solomon T., and Whitley R.J. Arthropod-borne viral encephalitides. In: Scheld W.M., Whitley R.J., and Marra C.M. (Eds). Infections of the central nervous system. 3rd edition (2004), Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia 205-230
66. Meehan P.J., Wells D.L., Paul W., et al. Epidemiological features and public health response to a St. Louis encephalitis epidemic in Florida, 1990-1991. Epidemiol Infect 125 (2000) 181-188
67. Wasay M., Diaz-Arrastia R., Suss R.A., et al. St. Louis encephalitis: a review of 11 cases in a 1995 Dallas, Tex, epidemic. Arch Neurol 57 (2000) 114-118
68. Jones S.C., Morris J., Hill G., et al. St. Louis encephalitis outbreak in Louisiana in 2001. J La State Med Soc 154 (2002) 303-306
69. Monath T.P. Epidemiology. In: Monath T.P. (Ed). St. Louis encephalitis (1980), American Public Health Association, Washington, DC 239-312
70. Brinker K.R., and Monath T.P. The acute disease. In: Monath T.P. (Ed). St. Louis encephalitis (1980), American Public Health Association, Washington, DC 503-534
71. Southern P.M., Smith J.W., Luby J.P., et al. Clinical and laboratory features of epidemic St. Louis encephalitis. Ann Intern Med 71 (1969) 681-689
72. Quick D.T., Thompson J.M., and Bond J.O. The 1962 epidemic of St. Louis encephalitis in Florida. IV. Clinical features of cases occurring in the Tampa Bay area. Am J Epidemiol 81 (1965) 415-427
73. Monath T.P., Nystrom R.R., Bailey R.E., et al. Immunoglobulin M antibody capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for diagnosis of St. Louis encephalitis. J Clin Microbiol 20 (1984) 784-790
74. Rahal J.J., Anderson J., Rosenberg C., et al. Effect of interferon-alpha2b therapy on St. Louis viral meningoencephalitis: clinical and laboratory results of a pilot study. J Infect Dis 190 (2004) 1084-1087
75. CDC. Eastern equine encephalitis-New Hampshire and Massachusetts, August-September 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 55 (2006) 697-700
76. Loftin K.C., Diallo A.A., Herbert M.W., et al. Five-year surveillance of West Nile and eastern equine encephalitis viruses in Southeastern Virginia. J Environ Health 68 (2006) 33-40
77. Mitchell C.J., Niebylski M.L., Smith G.C., et al. Isolation of eastern equine encephalitis virus from Aedes albopictus in Florida. Science 257 (1992) 526-527
78. Deresiewicz R.L., Thaler S.J., Hsu L., et al. Clinical and neuroradiographic manifestations of eastern equine encephalitis. N Engl J Med 336 (1997) 1867-1874
79. Przelomski M.M., O'Rourken E., Grady G.F., et al. Eastern equine encephalitis in Massachusetts: a report of 16 cases, 1970-1984. Neurology 38 (1988) 736-739
80. Eklund C.M. Human encephalitis of the western equine type in Minnesota in 1941. Clinical and epidemiological study of serologically proven cases. Am J Hyg 43 (1946) 171-193
81. Rozdilsky B., Robertson H.E., and Chorney J. Western encephalitis: report of eight fatal cases. Saskatchewan epidemic, 1965. Can Med Assoc J 98 (1968) 79-86
82. Sciple G.W., Ray G., La Motte L.C., et al. Western encephalitis with recovery of virus from cerebrospinal fluid. Neurology 17 (1967) 169-171
83. Gold H., and Hampil B. Equine encephalomyelitis in a laboratory technician with recovery. Ann Intern Med 16 (1942) 556-569
84. Longshore W.A., Stevens I.M., Hollister A.C., et al. Epidemiologic observations on acute infectious encephalitis in California, with special reference to the 1952 outbreak. Am J Hyg 63 (1956) 69-86
85. Earnest M.P., Goolishian H.A., Calverley J.R., et al. Neurologic, intellectual and psychologic sequelae following western encephalitis: a follow-up study of 35 cases. Neurology 21 (1971) 969-974
86. Weaver S.C., Ferro C., Barrera R., et al. Venezuelan equine encephalitis. Annu Rev Entomol 49 (2004) 141-174
87. Estrada-Franco J.G., Navarro-Lopez R., Freier J.E., et al. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, Southern Mexico. Emerg Infect Dis 10 (2004) 2113-2121
88. Walton T.E., and Grayson M.A. Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis. In: Monath T.P. (Ed). The arboviruses: epidemiology and ecology vol. IV (1988), CRC Press, Boca Raton Florida 203-231
89. Bowen G.S., and Calisher C.H. Virological and serological studies of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis in humans. J Clin Microbiol 4 (1976) 22-27
90. Watts D.M., Callahan J., Rossi C., et al. Venezuelan equine encephalitis febrile cases among humans in the Peruvian Amazon River region. Am J Trop Med Hyg 58 (1998) 35-40
91. Pittman P.R., Makuch R.S., Mangiafico J.A., et al. Long-term duration of detectable neutralizing antibodies after administration of live-attenuated VEE vaccine and following booster vaccination with inactivated VEE vaccine. Vaccine 14 (1996) 337-343
92. Rao V., Hinz M.E., Roberts B.A., et al. Toxicity assessment of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus vaccine candidate strain V3526. Vaccine 24 (2006) 1710-1715
93. McLean D.M., and Donohue W.L. Powassan virus: isolation of virus from a fatal case of encephalitis. Can Med Assoc J 80 (1959) 708-711
94. CDC. Outbreak of Powassan encephalitis-Maine and Vermont, 1999-2001. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 50 (2001) 761-764
95. Smith R., Woodall J.P., Whitney E., et al. Powassan virus infection: a report of three human cases of encephalitis. Am J Dis Child 127 (1974) 691-693
96. Rossier E., Harrison R.J., and Lemieux B. A case of Powassan virus encephalitis. Can Med Assoc J 110 (1974) 1173-1180
97. Thompson W.H., Kalfayan B., and Anslow R.O. Isolation of California encephalitis group virus from a fatal human illness. Am J Epidemiol 81 (1965) 245-253
98. Watts D.M., Pantuwatana S., DeFoliart G.R., et al. Transovarial transmission of LaCrosse virus (California encephalitis group) in the mosquito, Aedes triseriatus. Science 182 (1973) 1140-1141
99. McJunkin J.E., de los Reyes E.C., Irazuzta J.E., et al. La Crosse encephalitis in children. N Engl J Med 344 (2001) 801-807
100. Cramblett H.G., Stegmiller H., and Spencer C. California encephalitis virus infections in children: clinical and laboratory studies. JAMA 198 (1966) 108-112
101. Mayo D., Karabatsos N., Scarano F.J., et al. Jamestown Canyon virus: seroprevalence in Connecticut. Emerg Infect Dis 7 (2001) 911-912
102. Hilty M.D., Haynes R.E., Azimi P.H., et al. California encephalitis in children. Am J Dis Child 124 (1972) 530-533
103. Goodpasture H.C., Poland J.D., Francy D.B., et al. Colorado tick fever: clinical, epidemiologic, and laboratory aspects of 228 cases in Colorado in 1973-1974. Ann Intern Med 88 (1978) 303-310
104. Midoneck S.R., Richard J., and Murray H.W. Colorado tick fever in a resident of New York City. Arch Fam Med 3 (1994) 731-732
105. Attoui H., Mohd Jaafar F., Biagini P., et al. Genus Coltivirus (family Reoviridae): genomic and morphologic characterization of Old World and New World viruses. Arch Virol 147 (2002) 533-561
106. Spruance S.L., and Bailey A. Colorado tick fever: a review of 115 laboratory confirmed cases. Arch Intern Med 131 (1973) 288-293
107. Philipp C.S., Callaway C., Chu M.C., et al. Replication of Colorado tick fever virus within human hematopoietic progenitor cells. J Virol 67 (1993) 2389-2395
108. Emmons R.W., and Lennette E.H. Immunofluorescent staining in the laboratory diagnosis of Colorado tick fever. J Lab Clin Med 68 (1966) 923-929
109. Mohd Jaafar F., Attoui H., Gallian P., et al. Recombinant VP7-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of immunoglobulin G antibodies to Colorado tick fever virus. J Clin Microbiol 41 (2003) 2102-2105
110. CDC. Dengue hemorrhagic fever-U.S.-Mexico border, 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 56 (2007) 785-789
111. Effler P.V., Pang L., Kitsutani P., et al. Dengue fever, Hawaii, 2001-2002. Emerg Infect Dis 11 (2005) 742-749
112. CDC. Travel-associated dengue-United States, 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 55 (2006) 700-702
113. Solomon T., Dung N.M., Vaughn D.W., et al. Neurological manifestations of dengue infection. Lancet 355 (2000) 1053-1059
114. Lum L.C., Lam S.K., Choy Y.S., et al. Dengue encephalitis: a true entity?. Am J Trop Med Hyg 54 (1996) 256-259
115. Pancharoen C., and Thisyakorn U. Neurological manifestations of dengue patients. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 32 (2001) 341-345