Prevention Strategies for Cardiovascular Disease in HIV-infected Patients

Circulation

Volumn 118, Issue 2, 2008, Pages

  Stein, James H ^a   Hadigan, Colleen M ^a   Brown, Todd T ^a   Chadwick, Ellen ^a   Feinberg, Judith ^a   Friis Møller, Nina ^a   Ganesan, Anuradha ^a   Glesby, Marshall J ^a   Hardy, David ^a   Kaplan, Robert C ^a   Kim, Peter ^a   Lo, Janet ^a   Martinez, Esteban ^a   Sosman, James M ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Aha Conference Proceedings; AIDS; Cardiovascular disease; HIV; Infectious diseases; Prevention

Indexed keywords

2,4 THIAZOLIDINEDIONE DERIVATIVE; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT; ANTILIPEMIC AGENT; ANTIRETROVIRUS AGENT; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; METFORMIN; PROTEINASE INHIBITOR; RNA DIRECTED DNA POLYMERASE INHIBITOR;

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CIGARETTE SMOKING; CONFERENCE PAPER; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; DIET THERAPY; DISORDERS OF CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM; DRUG METABOLISM; DYSLIPIDEMIA; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTED PATIENT; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; HYPERTENSION; MORTALITY; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PREVENTION AND CONTROL; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SMOKING CESSATION; MEDICAL SOCIETY; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; UNITED STATES; VIROLOGY;

AMERICAN HEART ASSOCIATION; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTORS; UNITED STATES;

EID: 47649113748     PISSN: 00097322     EISSN: 15244539     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.189628     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (81)

1. Palella FJ Jr, Delaney KM, Moorman AC, Loveless MO, Fuhrer J, Satten GA, Aschman DJ, Holmberg SD; HIV Outpatient Study Investigators. Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:853-860.
2. Sackoff JE, Hanna DB, Pfeiffer MR, Torian LV. Causes of death among persons with AIDS in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: New York City. Ann Intern Med. 2006;145:397-406.
3. American Heart Association. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics - 2006 Update. Dallas, Tex: American Heart Association; 2006.
4. Obel N, Thomsen HF, Kronborg G, Larsen CS, Hildebrandt PR, Sørensen HT, Gerstoft J. Ischemic heart disease in HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected individuals: a population-based cohort study. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:1625-1631.
5. DAD Study Group, Friis-Møller N, Reiss P, Sabin CA, Weber R, Monforte A, El-Sadr W, Thiébaut R, De Wit S, Kirk O, Fontas E, Law MG, Phillips A, Lundgren JD. Class of antiretroviral drugs and the risk of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:1723-1735.
6. Triant VA, Lee H, Hadigan C, Grinspoon SK. Increased acute myocardial infarction rates and cardiovascular risk factors among patients with human immunodeficiency virus disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007; 92:2506-2512.
7. Stein JH. Cardiovascular risks of antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:1773-1775.
8. Wang X, Chai H, Yao Q, Chen C. Molecular mechanisms of HIV protease inhibitor-induced endothelial dysfunction. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;44:493-499.
9. Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults. Executive Summary of the Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA. 2001;285:2486-2497.
10. Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Merz CN, Brewer HB Jr, Clark LT, Hunninghake DB, Pasternak RC, Smith SC Jr, Stone NJ; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; American College of Cardiology Foundation; American Heart Association. Implications of recent clinical trials for the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III guidelines [published correction appears in Circulation. 2004;110:763]. Circulation. 2004;110:227-239.
11. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, Cushman WC, Green LA, Izzo JL Jr, Jones DW, Materson BJ, Oparil S, Wright JT Jr, Roccella EJ; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure; National High Blood Pressure Education Program Coordinating Committee. The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 report [published correction appears in JAMA. 2003;290:197]. JAMA. 2003;289:2560-2572.
12. Dubé MP, Stein JH, Aberg JA, Fichtenbaum CJ, Gerber JG, Tashima KT, Henry WK, Currier JS, Sprecher D, Glesby MJ; Adult AIDS Clinical Trials Group Cardiovascular Subcommittee; HIV Medical Association of the Infectious Disease Society of America. Guidelines for the evaluation and management of dyslipidemia in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected adults receiving antiretroviral therapy: recommendations of the HIV Medical Association of the Infectious Disease Society of America and the Adult AIDS Clinical Trials Group. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37:613-627.
13. Strategies for Management of Antiretroviral Therapy (SMART) Study Group, El-Sadr WM, Lundgren JD, Neaton JD, Gordin F, Abrams D, Arduino RC, Babiker A, Burman W, Clumeck N, Cohen CJ, Cohn D, Cooper D, Darbyshire J, Emery S, Fätkenheuer G, Gazzard B, Grund B, Hoy J, Klingman K, Losso M, Markowitz N, Neuhaus J, Phillips A, Rappoport C. CD4+ count-guided interruption of antiretroviral treatment. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:2283-2296.
14. Williams PL, Currier JS, Swindells S. Joint effects of HIV-1 RNA levels and CD4 lymphocyte cells on the risk of specific opportunistic infections. AIDS. 1999;13:1035-1044.
15. Savès M, Chêne G, Ducimetière P, Leport C, Le Moal G, Amouyel P, Arveiler D, Ruidavets JB, Reynes J, Bingham A, Raffi F; French WHO MONICA Project and the APROCO (ANRS EP11) Study Group. Risk factors for coronary heart disease in patients treated for human immunodeficiency virus infection compared with the general population. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37:292-298.
16. Gritz ER, Vidrine DJ, Lazev AB, Amick BC III, Arduino RC. Smoking behavior in a low-income multiethnic HIV/AIDS population. Nicotine Tob Res. 2004;6:71-77.
17. Mohiuddin SM, Mooss AN, Hunter CB, Grollmes TL, Cloutier DA, Hilleman DE. Intensive smoking cessation intervention reduces mortality in high-risk smokers with cardiovascular disease. Chest. 2007;131: 446-452.
18. Rea ID, Heckbert SR, Kaplan RC, Smith NL, Lemaitre RN, Psaty BM. Smoking status and risk for recurrent coronary events after myocardial infarction. Ann Intern Med. 2002;137:494-500.
19. Rosenberg L, Palmer JR, Shapiro S. Decline in the risk of myocardial infarction among women who stop smoking. N Engl J Med. 1990;322: 213-217.
20. Vlietstra RE, Kronmal RA, Oberman A, Frye RL, Killip T III. Effect of cigarette smoking on survival of patients with angiographically documented coronary artery disease: report from the CASS registry. JAMA. 1986;255:1023-1027.
21. Crothers K, Griffith TA, McGinnis KA, Rodriguez-Barradas MC, Leaf DA, Weissman S, Gibert CL, Butt AA, Justice AC. The impact of cigarette smoking on mortality, quality of life, and comorbid illness among HIV-positive veterans. J Gen Intern Med. 2005;20:1142-1145.
22. Fiore MC, Bailey WC, Cohen SJ, Dorfman SF, Goldstein HMG, Gritz ER, Heyman RB, Jaén CR, Kottke TE, Lando HA, Mecklenburg RG, Mullen PD, Nett LM, Robinson L, Stitzer ML, Tommasello AC, Villejo L, Wewers ME. Treating Tobacco Use and Dependence. Clinical Practice Guideline. Rockville, Md: US Department of Heatlh and Human Services, Public Health Service; 2000.
23. Mamary EM, Bahrs D, Martinez S. Cigarette smoking and the desire to quit among individuals living with HIV. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2002; 16:39-42.
24. Ranney L, Melvin C, Lux L, McClain E, Lohr KN. Systematic review: smoking cessation intervention strategies for adults and adults in special populations. Ann Intern Med. 2006;145:845-856.
25. Jorenby DE, Hays JT, Rigotti NA, Azoulay S, Watsky EJ, Williams KE, Billing CB, Gong J, Reeves KR; Varenicline Phase 3 Study Group. Efficacy of varenicline, an alpha4beta2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor partial agonist, vs placebo or sustained-release bupropion for smoking cessation: a randomized controlled trial [published correction appears in JAMA. 2006;296:1355]. JAMA. 2006;296:56-63.
26. Gonzales D, Rennard SI, Nides M, Oncken C, Azoulay S, Billing CB, Watsky EJ, Gong J, Williams KE, Reeves KR; Varenicline Phase 3 Study Group. Varenicline, an alpha4beta2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor partial agonist, vs sustained-release bupropion and placebo for smoking cessation: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2006;296:47-55.
27. Elzi L, Spoerl D, Voggensperger J, Nicca D, Simcock M, Bucher HC, Spirig R, Battegay M; Swiss HIV Cohort Study. A smoking cessation programme in HIV-infected individuals: a pilot study. Antivir Ther. 2006;11:787-795.
28. Rosendorff C, Black HR, Cannon CP, Gersh BJ, Gore J, Izzo JL Jr, Kaplan NM, O'Connor CM, O'Gara PT, Oparil S. Treatment of hypertension in the prevention and management of ischemic heart disease: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Council for High Blood Pressure Research and the Councils on Clinical Cardiology and Epidemiology and Prevention [published correction appears in Circulation. 2007;116:e121]. Circulation. 2007;115:2761-2788.
29. Kaplan RC, Kingsley LA, Sharrett AR, Li X, Lazar J, Tien PC, Mack WJ, Cohen MH, Jacobson L, Gange SJ. Ten-year predicted coronary heart disease risk in HIV-infected men and women. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45: 1074-1081.
30. Seaberg EC, Muñoz A, Lu M, Detels R, Margolick JB, Riddler SA, Williams CM, Phair JP; Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. Association between highly active antiretroviral therapy and hypertension in a large cohort of men followed from 1984 to 2003. AIDS. 2005;19:953-960.
31. Thiébaut R, El-Sadr WM, Friis-Møller N, Rickenbach M, Reiss P, Monforte AD, Morfeldt L, Fontas E, Kirk O, De Wit S, Calvo G, Law MG, Dabis F, Sabin CA, Lundgren JD; Data Collection of Adverse events of anti-HIV Drugs Study Group. Predictors of hypertension and changes of blood pressure in HIV-infected patients [published correction appears in Antivir Ther. 2005;10:969]. Antivir Ther. 2005;10:811-823.
32. Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Vollmer WM, Appel LJ, Bray GA, Harsha D, Obarzanek E, Conlin PR, Miller ER III, Simons-Morton DG, Karanja N, Lin PH; DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group. Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:3-10.
33. Appel LJ, Sacks FM, Carey VJ, Obarzanek E, Swain JF, Miller ER III, Conlin PR, Erlinger TP, Rosner BA, Laranjo NM, Charleston J, McCarron P, Bishop LM; OmniHeart Collaborative Research Group. Effects of protein, monounsaturated fat, and carbohydrate intake on blood pressure and serum lipids: results of the OmniHeart randomized trial. JAMA. 2005;294:2455-2464.
34. Fitch KV, Anderson EJ, Hubbard JL, Carpenter SJ, Waddell WR, Caliendo AM, Grinspoon SK. Effects of a lifestyle modification program in HIV-infected patients with the metabolic syndrome. AIDS. 2006;20: 1843-1850.
35. Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE, Hamman RF, Lachin JM, Walker EA, Nathan DM; Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:393-403.
36. Glesby MJ, Aberg JA, Kendall MA, Fichtenbaum CJ, Hafner R, Hall S, Grosskopf N, Zolopa AR, Gerber JG; Adult AIDS Clinical Trials Group A5159 Protocol Team. Pharmacokinetic interactions between indinavir plus ritonavir and calcium channel blockers. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2005; 78:143-153.
37. Grunfeld C, Pang M, Doerrler W, Shigenaga JK, Jensen P, Feingold KR. Lipids, lipoproteins, triglyceride clearance, and cytokines in human immunodeficiency virus infection and the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1992;74:1045-1052.
38. Périard D, Telenti A, Sudre P, Cheseaux JJ, Halfon P, Reymond MJ, Marcovina SM, Glauser MP, Nicod P, Darioli R, Mooser V. Atherogenic dyslipidemia in HIV-infected individuals treated with protease inhibitors: the Swiss HIV Cohort Study. Circulation. 1999;100:700-705.
39. Stein JH, Klein MA, Bellehumeur JL, McBride PE, Wiebe DA, Otvos JD, Sosman JM. Use of human immunodeficiency virus-1 protease inhibitors is associated with atherogenic lipoprotein changes and endothelial dysfunction. Circulation. 2001;104:257-262.
40. Anastos K, Lu D, Shi Q, Tien PC, Kaplan RC, Hessol NA, Cole S, Vigen C, Cohen M, Young M, Justman J. Association of serum lipid levels with HIV serostatus, specific antiretroviral agents, and treatment regimens. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;45:34-42.
41. Shlay JC, Bartsch G, Peng G, Wang J, Grunfeld C, Gibert CL, Visnegarwala F, Raghavan SS, Xiang Y, Farrough M, Perry HE, Kotler D, El-Sadr WM. Long-term body composition and metabolic changes in antiretroviral naive persons randomized to protease inhibitor-, non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor-, or protease inhibitor plus non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor-based strategy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;44:506-517.
42. Gatell J, Salmon-Ceron D, Lazzarin A, Van Wijngaerden E, Antunes F, Leen C, Horban A, Wirtz V, Odeshoo L, Van den Dungen M, Gruber C, Ledesma E; SWAN Study Group. Efficacy and safety of atazanavir-based highly active antiretroviral therapy in patients with virologic suppression switched from a stable, boosted or unboosted protease inhibitor treatment regimen: the SWAN Study (AI424-097) 48-week results. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:1484-1492.
43. Friis-Møller N, Weber R, Reiss P, Thiebaut R, Kirk O, d'Arminio Monforte A, Pradier C, Morfeldt L, Mateu S, Law M, El-Sadr W, De Wit S, Sabin CA, Phillips AN, Lundgren JD; DAD Study Group. Cardio-vascular disease risk factors in HIV patients: association with antiret-roviral therapy: results from the DAD study. AIDS. 2003;17:1179-1193.
44. Haubrich RH, Riddler S, DiRenzo G, Komarow L, Powderly W, Garren K, George T, Rooney J, Mellors J, Havlir D; AIDS Clinical Trials Group 5142 Study Team. Metabolic outcomes of ACTG 5142: a prospective, randomized, phase III trial of NRTI-, PI-, and NNRTI-sparing regimens for initial treatment of HIV-1 infection. Presented at: 14th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infection; February 26, 2007; Los Angeles, Calif. Abstract 38.
45. Smith K, Weinberg W, DeJesus E. Efficacy and safety of once-daily boosted fosamprenavir (FPV/r) or atazanavir (ATV/r) with tenofovir (TDF)/emtrictabine (FTC) in antiretroviral-naive HIV-1 infected patients: 24-week results from COL103952 (ALERT). Presented at: 46th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; September 27-30, 2006; San Francisco, Calif. Abstract H-1670a.
46. Aberg JA. Cardiovascular risk among HIV-positive patients on antiretroviral therapy. J Int Assoc Physicians AIDS Care (Chic III). 2003; (suppl 2): S24-S39.
47. Fontas E, van Leth F, Sabin CA, Friis-Møller N, Rickenbach M, d'Arminio Monforte A, Kirk O, Dupon M, Morfeldt L, Mateu S, Petoumenos K, El-Sadr W, de Wit S, Lundgren JD, Pradier C, Reiss P; D:A:D Study Group. Lipid profiles in HIV-infected patients receiving combination antiretroviral therapy: are different antiretroviral drugs associated with different lipid profiles? J Infect Dis. 2004;189:1056-1074.
48. Currier JS, Kendall MA, Henry WK, Alston-Smith B, Torriani FJ, Tebas P, Li Y, Hodis HN. Progression of carotid artery intima-media thickening in HIV-infected and uninfected adults. AIDS. 2007;21:1137-1145.
49. Hsue PY, Lo JC, Franklin A, Bolger AF, Martin JN, Deeks SG, Waters DD. Progression of atherosclerosis as assessed by carotid intima-media thickness in patients with HIV infection. Circulation. 2004;109: 1603-1608.
50. Lichtenstein K, Armon C, Buchacz K, Moorman A, Wood K, Brooks J; HIV Outpatient Study Group. Analysis of cardiovascular risk factors in the HIV outpatient study cohort. Presented at: Program and Abstracts of the 13th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections; February 5-8, 2006, Denver, Colo. Abstract 735.
51. Joy T, Keogh HM, Hadigan C, Lee H, Dolan SE, Fitch K, Liebau J, Lo J, Johnsen S, Hubbard J, Anderson EJ, Grinspoon S. Dietary fat intake and relationship to serum lipid levels in HIV-infected patients with metabolic abnormalities in the HAART era. AIDS. 2007;21:1591-1600.
52. Stein JH, Merwood MA, Bellehumeur JL, Aeschlimann SE, Korcarz CE, Underbakke GL, Mays ME, Sosman JM. Effects of pravastatin on lipoproteins and endothelial function in patients receiving human immunodeficiency virus protease inhibitors. Am Heart J. 2004;147:E18.
53. Hurlimann D, Chenevard R, Ruschitzka F, Flepp M, Enseleit F, Béchir M, Kobza R, Muntwyler J, Ledergerber B, Lüscher TF, Noll G, Weber R. Effects of statins on endothelial function and lipid profile in HIV infected persons receiving protease inhibitor-containing anti-retroviral combination therapy: a randomised double blind crossover trial. Heart. 2006; 92:110-112.
54. Aberg JA, Zackin RA, Brobst SW, Evans SR, Alston BL, Henry WK, Glesby MJ, Torriani FJ, Yang Y, Owens SI, Fichtenbaum CJ; ACTG 5087 Study Team. A randomized trial of the efficacy and safety of fenofibrate versus pravastatin in HIV-infected subjects with lipid abnormalities: AIDS Clinical Trials Group Study 5087. AIDS Res Hum Retro-viruses. 2005;21:757-767.
55. Gerber J, Kitch D, Aberg J. The safety and efficacy of fish oil in combination with fenofibrate in subjects on ART with hypertriglyceridemia who had an incomplete response to either agent alone: results of ACTG A5186. Paper presented at: 13th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections; February 5-8, 2006; Denver, Colo. Abstract 146.
56. Negredo E, Moltó J, Puig J, Cinquegrana D, Bonjoch A, Pérez-Alvarez N, López-Blázquez R, Blanco A, Clotet B, Rey-Joly C. Ezetimibe, a promising lipid-lowering agent for the treatment of dyslipidaemia in HIV-infected patients with poor response to statins. AIDS. 2006;20: 2159-2164.
57. Dubé MP, Wu JW, Aberg JA, Deeg MA, Alston-Smith BL, McGovern ME, Lee D, Shriver SL, Martinez AI, Greenwald M, Stein JH; AIDS Clinical Trials Group A5148 Study Team. Safety and efficacy of extended-release niacin for the treatment of dyslipidaemia in patients with HIV infection: AIDS Clinical Trials Group Study A5148. Antivir Ther. 2006;11:1081-1089.
58. Fichtenbaum CJ, Gerber JG. Interactions between antiretroviral drugs and drugs used for the therapy of the metabolic complications encountered during HIV infection. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2002;41:1195-1211.
59. Tien PC, Schneider MF, Cole SR, Levine AM, Cohen M, DeHovitz J, Young M, Justman JE. Antiretroviral therapy exposure and incidence of diabetes mellitus in the Women's Interagency HIV Study. AIDS. 2007; 21:1739-1745.
60. Hadigan C. Diabetes, insulin resistance, and HIV. Curr Infect Dis Rep. 2006;8:69-75.
61. Brown IT, Cole SR, Li X, Kingsley LA, Palella FJ, Riddler SA, Visscher BR, Margolick JB, Dobs AS. Antiretroviral therapy and the prevalence and incidence of diabetes mellitus in the multicenter AIDS cohort study [published correction appears in Arch Intern Med. 2005;165:2541]. Arch Intern Med. 2005;165:1179-1184.
62. Brown IT, Li X, Cole SR, Kingsley LA, Palella FJ, Riddler SA, Chmiel JS, Visscher BR, Margolick JB, Dobs AS. Cumulative exposure to nucleoside analogue reverse transcriptase inhibitors is associated with insulin resistance markers in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. AIDS. 2005;19:1375-1383.
63. Ledergerber B, Furrer H, Rickenbach M, Lehmann R, Elzi L, Hirschel B, Cavassini M, Bernasconi E, Schmid P, Egger M, Weber R; Swiss HIV Cohort Study. Factors associated with the incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus in HIV-infected participants in the Swiss HIV Cohort Study. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:111-119.
64. Dubé MP, Edmondson-Melancon H, Qian D, Aqeel R, Johnson D, Buchanan TA. Prospective evaluation of the effect of initiating indinavir-based therapy on insulin sensitivity and B-cell function in HIV-infected patients. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2001;27:130-134.
65. Noor MA, Seneviratne T, Aweeka FT, Lo JC, Schwarz JM, Mulligan K, Schambelan M, Grunfeld C. Indinavir acutely inhibits insulin-stimulated glucose disposal in humans: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. AIDS. 2002;16:F1-F8.
66. Lee GA, Lo JC, Aweeka F, Schwarz JM, Mulligan K, Schambelan M, Grunfeld C. Single-dose lopinavir-ritonavir acutely inhibits insulinmediated glucose disposal in healthy volunteers. Clin Infect Dis. 2006; 43:658-660.
67. Visnegarwala F, Chen L, Raghavan S, Tedaldi E. Prevalence of diabetes mellitus and dyslipidemia among antiretroviral naive patients co-infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV) and HIV-1 compared to patients without co-infection. J Infect. 2005;50:331-337.
68. Tuomilehto J, Lindström J, Eriksson JG, Valle TT, Hämäläinen H, Ilanne-Parikka P, Keinänen-Kiukaanniemi S, Laakso M, Louheranta A, Rastas M, Salminen V, Uusitupa M; Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study Group. Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med. 2001;344: 1343-1350.
69. Nathan DM, Davidson MB, DeFronzo RA, Heine RJ, Henry RR, Pratley R, Zinman B; American Diabetes Association. Impaired fasting glucose and impaired glucose tolerance: implications for care. Diabetes Care. 2007;30:753-759.
70. Gavrila A, Tsiodras S, Doweiko J, Nagy GS, Brodovicz K, Hsu W, Karchmer AW, Mantzoros CS. Exercise and vitamin E intake are independently associated with metabolic abnormalities in human immunodeficiency virus-positive subjects: a cross-sectional study. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36:1593-1601.
71. Hadigan C, Corcoran C, Basgoz N, Davis B, Sax P, Grinspoon S. Metformin in the treatment of HIV lipodystrophy syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2000;284:472-477.
72. van Wijk JP, de Koning EJ, Cabezas MC, op't Roodt J, Joven J, Rabelink TJ, Hoepelman AI. Comparison of rosiglitazone and metformin for treating HIV lipodystrophy: a randomized trial [published correction appears in Ann Intern Med. 2005;143:695 Dosage error in text]. Ann Intern Med. 2005;143:337-346.
73. Grinspoon S. Use of thiazolidinediones in HIV-infected patients: what have we learned? J Infect Dis. 2007;195:1731-1733.
74. Bitnun A, Sochett E, Dick PT, To T, Jefferies C, Babyn P, Forbes J, Read S, King SM. Insulin sensitivity and beta-cell function in protease inhibitor-treated and -naive human immunodeficiency virus-infected children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90:168-174.
75. Beregszaszi M, Dollfus C, Levine M, Faye A, Deghmoun S, Belial N, Houang M, Chevenne D, Hankard R, Bresson JL, Blanche S, Levy-Marchal C. Longitudinal evaluation and risk factors of lipodystrophy and associated metabolic changes in HIV-infected children. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2005;40:161-168.
76. American Diabetes Association. Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2007;30(Suppl):S42-S47.
77. Bury JE, Stroup JS, Stephens JR, Baker DL. Achieving American Diabetes Association goals in HIV-seropositive patients with diabetes mellitus. Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent). 2007;20:118-123.
78. Shikuma CM, Yang Y, Glesby MJ, Meyer WA III, Tashima KT, Ribaudo HJ, Webb N, Bastow B, Kuritzkes DR, Gulick RM. Metabolic effects of protease inhibitor-sparing antiretroviral regimens given as initial treatment of HIV-1 Infection (AIDS Clinical Trials Group Study A5095). J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;44:540-550.
79. Fisac C, Fumero E, Crespo M, Roson B, Ferrer E, Virgili N, Ribera E, Gatell JM, Podzamczer D. Metabolic benefits 24 months after replacing a protease inhibitor with abacavir, efavirenz or nevirapine. AIDS. 2005; 19:917-925.
80. Bozzette SA, Ake CF, Tarn HK, Chang SW, Louis TA. Cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events in patients treated for human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:702-710.
81. Falutz J, Alias S, Blot K, Potvin D, Kotler D, Somero M, Berger B, Brown S, Richmond G, Fessel J, Turner R, Grinspoon S. Metabolic effects of a growth hormone-releasing factor in HIV patients. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:2359-2370.