Role of L-arginine in the pathogenesis and treatment of renal disease

Journal of Nutrition

Volumn 134, Issue 10 SUPPL., 2004, Pages

  Cherla, Gautam ^a   Jaimes, Edgar A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI MILLER SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Glomerulonephritis; Hypertension; Kidney failure; L arginine; Nitric oxide; Preeclampsia

Indexed keywords

AGMATINE; ARGININE; ENDOTHELIAL NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE; INDUCIBLE NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE; N(G),N(G) DIMETHYLARGININE; NITRIC OXIDE; POLYAMINE; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE;

ACUTE KIDNEY FAILURE; AMINO ACID METABOLISM; CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE; CONFERENCE PAPER; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; GLOMERULONEPHRITIS; GLOMERULUS FILTRATION RATE; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; KIDNEY DISEASE; KIDNEY ISCHEMIA; LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS NEPHRITIS; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; PREECLAMPSIA; URETER OBSTRUCTION;

ANIMALIA; GLOMERULUS;

EID: 4744374108     PISSN: 00223166     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jn/134.10.2801s     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (96)

1. Reyes, A. A., Karl, I. E. & Klahr, S. (1994) Role of arginine in health and in renal disease. Am. J. Physiol. 267: F331-F346.
2. Moncada, S. (1997) Nitric oxide in the vasculature: physiology and pathophysiology. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 811: 60-67; discussion 67-69.
3. Castillo, L., Sanchez, M., Vogt, J., Chapman, T. E., DeRojas-Walker, T. C., Tannenbaum, S. R., Ajami, A. M. & Young, V. R. (1995) Plasma arginine, citrulline, and ornithine kinetics in adults, with observations on nitric oxide synthesis. Am. J. Physiol. 268: E360-E367.
4. Raij, L. & Baylis, C. (1995) Glomerular actions of nitric oxide. Kidney Int. 48: 20-32.
5. Kone, B. C. (1997) Nitric oxide in renal health and disease. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 30: 311-333.
6. Jenkinson, C. P., Grody, W. W. & Cederbaum, S. D. (1996) Comparative properties of arginases. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B. Biochem. Mol. Biol. 114: 107-132.
7. Shih, V. E. (1981) Regulation of ornithine metabolism. Enzyme 26: 254-258.
8. Cook, H. T., Jansen, A., Lewis, S., Largen, P., O'Donnell, M., Reaveley, D. & Cattell, V. (1994) Arginine metabolism in experimental glomerulonephritis: interaction between nitric oxide synthase and arginase. Am. J. Physiol. 267: F646-F653.
9. Li, G., Regunathan, S., Barrow, C. J., Eshraghi, J., Cooper, R. & Reis, D. J. (1994) Agmatine: an endogenous clonidine-displacing substance in the brain. Science 263: 966-969.
10. Schwartz, D., Peterson, O. W., Mendonca, M., Satriano, J., Lortie, M. & Blantz, R. C. (1997) Agmatine affects glomerular filtration via a nitric oxide synthase-dependent mechanism. Am. J. Physiol. 272: F597-F601.
11. Morrissey, J., McCracken, R., Ishidoya, S. & Klahr, S. (1995) Partial cloning and characterization of an arginine decarboxylase in the kidney. Kidney Int. 47: 1458-1461.
12. Reyes, A. A., Purkerson, M. L., Karl, I. & Klahr, S. (1992) Dietary supplementation with L-arginine ameliorates the progression of renal disease in rats with subtotal nephrectomy. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 20: 168-176.
13. Katoh, T., Takahashi, K., Klahr, S., Reyes, A. A. & Badr, K. F. (1994) Dietary supplementation with L-arginine ameliorates glomerular hypertension in rats with subtotal nephrectomy. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 4: 1690-1694.
14. Reyes, A. A., Porras, B. H., Chasalow, F. I. & Klahr, S. (1994) L-arginine decreases the infiltration of the kidney by macrophages in obstructive nephropathy and puromycin-induced nephrosis. Kidney Int. 45: 1346-1354.
15. Reyes, A. A., Karl, I. E., Yates, J. & Klahr, S. (1994) Low plasma and renal tissue levels of L-arginine in rats with obstructive nephropathy. Kidney Int. 45: 782-787.
16. Reyes, A. A., Karl, I. E., Kissane, J. & Klahr, S. (1993) L-arginine administration prevents glomerular hyperfiltration and decreases proteinuria in diabetic rats. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 4: 1039-1045.
17. Morrissey, J. J., Ishidoya, S., McCracken, R. & Klahr, S. (1996) Nitric oxide generation ameliorates the tubulointerstitial fibrosis of obstructive nephropathy. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 7: 2202-2212.
18. Chen, P. Y., St John, P. L., Kirk, K. A., Abrahamson, D. R. & Sanders, P.W. (1993) Hypertensive nephrosclerosis in the Dahl/Rapp rat. Initial sites of injury and effect of dietary L-arginine supplementation. Lab. Invest. 68: 174-184.
19. De Nicola, L., Thomson, S. C., Wead, L. M., Brown, M. R. & Gabbai, F. B. (1993) Arginine feeding modifies cyclosporine nephrotoxicity in rats. J. Clin. Invest. 92: 1859-1865.
20. Ashab, I., Peer, G., Blum, M., Wollman, Y., Chernihovsky, T., Hassner, A., Schwartz, D., Cabili, S., Silverberg, D. & laina, A. (1995) Oral administration of L-arginine and captopril in rats prevents chronic renal failure by nitric oxide production. Kidney Int. 47: 1515-1521.
21. Amore, A., Gianoglio, B., Ghigo, D., Peruzzi, L., Porcellini, M. G., Bussolino, F., Costamagna, C., Cacace, G., Picciotto, G., Mazzucco, G. & et al. (1995) A possible role for nitric oxide in modulating the functional cyclosporine toxicity by arginine. Kidney Int. 47: 1507-1514.
22. Hostetter, T. H., Olson, J. L., Rennke, H. G., Venkatachalam, M. A. & Brenner, B. M. (1981) Hyperfiltration in remnant nephrons: a potentially adverse response to renal ablation. Am. J. Physiol. 241: F85-F93.
23. Purkerson, M. L., Hoffsten, P. E. & Klahr, S. (1976) Pathogenesis of the glomerulopathy associated with renal infarction in rats. Kidney Int. 9: 407-417.
24. Aiello, S., Noris, M., Todeschini, M., Zappella, S., Foglieni, C., Benigni, A., Corna, D., Zoja, C., Cavallotti, D. & Remuzzi, G. (1997) Renal and systemic nitric oxide synthesis in rats with renal mass reduction. Kidney Int. 52: 171-181.
25. Klahr, S. (1998) Obstructive nephropathy. Kidney Int. 54: 286-300.
26. Miyajima, A., Chen, J., Poppas, D. P., Vaughan, E. D., Jr. & Felsen, D. (2001) Role of nitric oxide in renal tubular apoptosis of unilateral ureteral obstruction. Kidney Int. 59: 1290-1303.
27. Salvemini, D., Seibert, K., Masferrer, J. L., Misko, T. P., Currie, M. G. & Needleman, P. (1994) Endogenous nitric oxide enhances prostaglandin production in a model of renal inflammation. J. Clin. Invest. 93: 1940-1947.
28. Reyes, A. A., Martin, D., Settle, S. & Klahr, S. (1992) EDRF role in renal function and blood pressure of normal rats and rats with obstructive uropathy. Kidney Int. 41: 403-413.
29. Ito, K., Chen, J., Vaughan, E. D., Jr., Seshan, S. V., Poppas, D. P. & Felsen, D. (2004) Dietary L-arginine supplementation improves the glomerular filtration rate and renal blood flow after 24 hours of unilateral ureteral obstruction in rats. J. Urol. 171: 926-930.
30. Leclercq, B., Jaimes, E. A. & Raij, L. (2002) Nitric oxide synthase and hypertension. Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens. 11: 185-189.
31. Zhou, M. S., Adam, A. G., Jaimes, E. A. & Raij, L. (2003) In salt-sensitive hypertension, increased superoxide production is linked to functional upregulation of angiotensin II. Hypertension 42: 945-951.
32. Jaimes, E. A., Galceran, J. M. & Raij, L. (1998) Angiotensin II induces superoxide anion production by mesangial cells. Kidney Int. 54: 775-784.
33. Griendling, K. K., Sorescu, D. & Ushio-Fukai, M. (2000) NAD(P)H oxidase: role in cardiovascular biology and disease. Circ. Res. 86: 494-501.
34. Chen, P. Y. & Sanders, P. W. (1991) L-arginine abrogates salt-sensitive hypertension in Dahl/Rapp rats. J. Clin. Invest. 88: 1559-1567.
35. Fujii, S., Zhang, L., Igarashi, J. & Kosaka, H. (2003) L-arginine reverses p47phox and gp91phox expression induced by high salt in Dahl rats. Hypertension 42: 1014-1020.
36. Hayakawa, H., Hirata, Y., Suzuki, E., Kimura, K., Kikuchi, K., Nagano, T., Hirobe, M. & Omata, M. (1994) Long-term administration of L-arginine improves nitric oxide release from kidney in deoxycorticosterone acetate-salt hypertensive rats. Hypertension 23: 752-756.
37. Abreu, G. R., Futuro-Neto, H. A., Cabral, A. M. & Vasquez, E. C. (1999) L-arginine restores the effect of ouabain on baroreceptor activity and prevents hypertension. Hypertension 34: 729-732.
38. Peters, H., Border, W. A. & Noble, N. A. (1999) L-Arginine supplementation increases mesangial cell injury and subsequent tissue fibrosis in experimental glomerulonephritis. Kidney Int. 55: 2264-2273.
39. Cattell, V., Smith, J., Jansen, A., Riveros-Moreno, V. & Moncada, S. (1994) Localization of inducible nitric oxide synthase in acute renal allograft rejection in the rat. Transplantation 58: 1399-1402.
40. Jansen, A., Cook, T., Taylor, G. M., Largen, P., Riveros-Moreno, V., Moncada, S. & Cattell, V. (1994) Induction of nitric oxide synthase in rat immune complex glomerulonephritis. Kidney Int. 45: 1215-1219.
41. Kashem, A., Endoh, M., Yano, N., Yamauchi, F., Nomoto, Y. & Sakai, H. (1996) Expression of inducible-NOS in human glomerulonephritis: the possible source is infiltrating monocytes/macrophages. Kidney Int. 50: 392-399.
42. Heeringa, P., Bijl, M., de Jager-Krikken, A., Zandvoort, A., Dijkstra, G., Moshage, H., Tervaert, J. W., Tiebosch, A. T., Kallenberg, C. G. & van Goor, H. (2001) Renal expression of endothelial and inducible nitric oxide synthase, and formation of peroxynitrite-modified proteins and reactive oxygen species in Wegener's granulomatosis. J. Pathol. 193: 224-232.
43. Furusu, A., Miyazaki, M., Abe, K., Tsukasaki, S., Shioshita, K., Sasaki, O., Miyazaki, K., Ozono, Y., Koji, T., Harada, T., Sakai, H. & Kohno, S. (1998) Expression of endothelial and inducible nitric oxide synthase in human glomerulonephritis. Kidney Int. 53: 1760-1768.
44. Albrecht, E. W., van Goor, H., Tiebosch, A. T., Moshage, H., Tegzess, A. M. & Stegeman, C. A. (2000) Nitric oxide production and nitric oxide synthase expression in acute human renal allograft rejection. Transplantation 70: 1610-1616.
45. Jefferson, J. A. & Johnson, R. J. (1999) Experimental mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis (the anti-Thy-1.1 model). J. Nephrol. 12: 297-307.
46. Walpen, S., Beck, K. F., Schaefer, L., Raslik, I., Eberhardt, W., Schaefer, R. M. & Pfeilschifter, J. (2001) Nitric oxide induces MIP-2 transcription in rat renal mesangial cells and in a rat model of glomerulonephritis. FASEB J. 15: 571-573.
47. Narita, I., Border, W. A., Ketteler, M., Ruoslahti, E. & Noble, N. A. (1995) L-arginine may mediate the therapeutic effects of low protein diets. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 92: 4552-4556.
48. Peters, H., Border, W. A. & Noble, N. A. (2000) Tandem antifibrotic actions of L-arginine supplementation and low protein diet during the repair phase of experimental glomerulonephritis. Kidney Int. 57: 992-1001.
49. Waddington, S., Cook, H. T., Reaveley, D., Jansen, A. & Cattell, V. (1996) L-arginine depletion inhibits glomerular nitric oxide synthesis and exacerbates rat nephrotoxic nephritis. Kidney Int. 49: 1090-1096.
50. Cattell, V. & Cook, T. (1995) The nitric oxide pathway in glomerulonephritis. Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens. 4: 359-364.
51. Cattell, V., Cook, H. T., Ebrahim, H., Waddington, S. N., Wei, X. Q., Assmann, K. J. & Liew, F. Y. (1998) Anti-GBM glomerulonephritis in mice lacking nitric oxide synthase type 2. Kidney Int. 53: 932-936.
52. Weinberg, J. B., Granger, D. L., Pisetsky, D. S., Seldin, M. F., Misukonis, M.A., Mason, S. N., Pippen, A. M., Ruiz, P., Wood, E. R. & Gilkeson, G. S. (1994) The role of nitric oxide in the pathogenesis of spontaneous murine autoimmune disease: increased nitric oxide production and nitric oxide synthase expression in MRL-lpr/lpr mice, and reduction of spontaneous glomerulonephritis and arthritis by orally administered NG-monomethyl-L-arginine. J. Exp. Med. 179: 651-660.
53. Peters, H., Border, W. A., Ruckert, M., Kramer, S., Neumayer, H. H. & Noble, N. A. (2003) L-arginine supplementation accelerates renal fibrosis and shortens life span in experimental lupus nephritis. Kidney Int. 63: 1382-1392.
54. De Nicola, L., Bellizzi, V., Minutolo, R., Andreucci, M., Capuano, A., Garibotto, G., Corso, G., Andreucci, V. E. & Cianciaruso, B. (1999) Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of arginine supplementation in chronic renal failure. Kidney Int. 56: 674-684.
55. Eisenberger, U., Damman, M., Bode-Boger, S. M., Boeger, R., Schaeffer, J., Radermacher, J. & Brunkhorst, R. (1999) Oral arginine in patients with chronic allograft dysfunction: A placebo-controlled cross-over study. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 10: 727A-728A.
56. Kelly, K. J. & Molitoris, B. A. (2000) Acute renal failure in the new millennium: time to consider combination therapy. Semin. Nephrol. 20: 4-19.
57. Schramm, L., Heidbreder, E., Lopau, K., Schaar, J., De Cicco, D., Gotz, R. & Heidland, A. (1994) Toxic acute renal failure in the rat: effects of L-arginine and N-methyl-L-arginine on renal function. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 9 (suppl. 4): 88-93.
58. Lopau, K., Kleinert, D., Erler, J., Schramm, L., Heidbreder, E. & Wanner, C. (2000) Tacrolimus in acute renal failure: does L-arginine-infusion prevent changes in renal hemodynamics? Transpl. Int. 13: 436-442.
59. Valdivielso, J. M., Lopez-Novoa, J. M., Eleno, N. & Perez Barriocanal, F. (2000) Role of glomerular nitric oxide in glycerol-induced acute renal failure. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 78: 476-482.
60. Schramm, L., La, M., Heidbreder, E., Hecker, M., Beckman, J. S., Lopau, K., Zimmermann, J., Rendl, J., Reiners, C., Winderl, S., Wanner, C. & Schmidt, H. H. (2002) L-arginine deficiency and supplementation in experimental acute renal failure and in human kidney transplantation. Kidney Int. 61: 1423-1432.
61. Harrison, D. G. (1997) Cellular and molecular mechanisms of endothelial cell dysfunction. J. Clin. Invest. 100: 2153-2157.
62. Boger, R. H. & Bode-Boger, S. M. (2001) The clinical pharmacology of L-arginine. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 41: 79-99.
63. Schramm, L., Heidbreder, E., Lopau, K., Schaar, J., Zimmermann, J., Harlos, J., Teschner, M., Ling, H. & Heidland, A. (1996) Influence of nitric oxide on renal function in toxic acute renal failure in the rat. Miner. Electrolyte Metab. 22: 168-177.
64. Goligorsky, M. S. & Noiri, E. (1999) Duality of nitric oxide in acute renal injury. Semin. Nephrol. 19: 263-271.
65. Conger, J., Robinette, J., Villar, A., Raij, L. & Shultz, P. (1995) Increased nitric oxide synthase activity despite lack of response to endothelium-dependent vasodilators in postischemic acute renal failure in rats. J. Clin. Invest. 96: 631-638.
66. Conger, J. D., Robinette, J. B. & Schrier, R. W. (1988) Smooth muscle calcium and endothelium-derived relaxing factor in the abnormal vascular responses of acute renal failure. J. Clin. Invest. 82: 532-537.
67. Sternbergh, W. C., Makhoul, R. G. & Adelman, B. (1993) Nitric oxide-mediated, endothelium-dependent vasodilation is selectively attenuated in the postischemic extremity. Surgery 114: 960-967.
68. Schneider, R., Raff, U., Vomberger, N., Schmidt, M., Freund, R., Reber, M., Schramm, L., Gambaryan, S., Wanner, C., Schmidt, H. H. & Galle, J. (2003) L-Arginine counteracts nitric oxide deficiency and improves the recovery phase of ischemic acute renal failure in rats. Kidney Int. 64: 216-225.
69. Conti, M., Eschwege, P., Ahmed, M., Paradis, V., Droupy, S., Loric, S., Bedossa, P., Charpentier, B., Legrand, A. & Benoit, G. (2000) Antioxidant enzymatic activities and renal warm ischemia: correlation with the duration of ischemia. Transplant. Proc. 32: 2740-2741.
70. Chatterjee, P. K., Patel, N. S., Kvale, E. O., Cuzzocrea, S., Brown, P. A., Stewart, K. N., Mota-Filipe, H. & Thiemermann, C. (2002) Inhibition of inducible nitric oxide synthase reduces renal ischemia/reperfusion injury. Kidney Int. 61: 862-871.
71. Jaimes, E. A., del Castillo, D., Rutherford, M. S. & Raij, L. (2001) Countervailing influence of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and nitric oxide in endotoxemia. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 12: 1204-1210.
72. Shultz, P. J. & Raij, L. (1992) Endogenously synthesized nitric oxide prevents endotoxin-induced glomerular thrombosis. J. Ciin. Invest. 90: 1718-1725.
73. Jerkic, M., Varagic, J., Jovovic, D., Radujkovic-Kuburovic, G., Nastic-Miric, D., Adanja-Grujic, G., Markovic-Lipkovski, J., Dimitrijevic, J., Miloradovic, Z. & Vojvodic, S. B. (1999) L-arginine reduces tubular cell injury in acute post-ischaemic renal failure. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 14: 1398-1407.
74. McDonald, K. K., Zharikov, S., Block, E. R. & Kilberg, M. S. (1997) A caveolar complex between the cationic amino acid transporter 1 and endothelial nitric-oxide synthase may explain the "arginine paradox". J. Biol. Chem. 272: 31213-31216.
75. Vallance, P., Leone, A., Calver, A., Collier, J. & Moncada, S. (1992) Accumulation of an endogenous inhibitor of nitric oxide synthesis in chronic renal failure. Lancet 339: 572-575.
76. Xia, Y., Tsai, A. L., Berka, V. & Zweier, J. L. (1998) Superoxide generation from endothelial nitric-oxide synthase. A Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent and tetrahydrobiopterin regulatory process. J. Biol. Chem. 273: 25804-25808.
77. National High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Report on High Blood Pressure in Pregnancy (2000) Consensus Report. National Institutes of Health. NIH Publication 00-3029.
78. de Groot, C. J. & Taylor, R. N. (1993) New insights into the etiology of pre-eclampsia. Ann. Med. 25: 243-249.
79. Brown, M. A. (1995) The physiology of pre-eclampsia. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 22: 781-791.
80. Baylis, C. & Qiu, C. (1996) Importance of nitric oxide in the control of renal hemodynamics. Kidney Int. 49: 1727-1731.
81. Conrad, K. P. (1987) Possible mechanisms for changes in renal hemodynamics during pregnancy: studies from animal models. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 9: 253-259.
82. Alexander, B. T., Miller, M. T., Kassab, S., Novak, J., Reckelhoff, J. F., Kruckeberg, W. C. & Granger, J. P. (1999) Differential expression of renal nitric oxide synthase isoforms during pregnancy in rats. Hypertension 33: 435-439.
83. Conrad, K. P., Joffe, G. M., Kruszyna, H., Kruszyna, R., Rochelle, L. G., Smith, R. P., Chavez, J. E. & Mosher, M. D. (1993) Identification of increased nitric oxide biosynthesis during pregnancy in rats. FASEB J. 7: 566-571.
84. Dhanakoti, S. N., Brosnan, J. T., Herzberg, G. R. & Brosnan, M. E. (1990) Renal arginine synthesis: studies in vitro and in vivo. Am. J. Physiol. 259: E437-E442.
85. Kassab, S., Miller, M. T., Hester, R., Novak, J. & Granger, J. P. (1998) Systemic hemodynamics and regional blood flow during chronic nitric oxide synthesis inhibition in pregnant rats. Hypertension 31: 315-320.
86. Deng, A., Engels, K. & Baylis, C. (1996) Impact of nitric oxide deficiency on blood pressure and glomerular hemodynamic adaptations to pregnancy in the rat. Kidney Int. 50: 1132-1138.
87. Helmbrecht, G. D., Farhat, M. Y., Lochbaum, L., Brown, H. E., Yadgarova, K. T., Eglinton, G. S. & Ramwell, P. W. (1996) L-arginine reverses the adverse pregnancy changes induced by nitric oxide synthase inhibition in the rat. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 175: 800-805.
88. Alexander, B. T., Kassab, S. E., Miller, M. T., Abram, S. R., Reckelhoff, J. F., Bennett, W. A. & Granger, J. P. (2001) Reduced uterine perfusion pressure during pregnancy in the rat is associated with increases in arterial pressure and changes in renal nitric oxide. Hypertension 37: 1191-1195.
89. Crews, J. K., Herrington, J. N., Granger, J. P. & Khalil, R. A. (2000) Decreased endothelium-dependent vascular relaxation during reduction of uterine perfusion pressure in pregnant rat. Hypertension 35: 367-372.
90. Noris, M., Todeschini, M., Cassis, P., Pasta, F., Cappellini, A., Bonazzola, S., Macconi, D., Maucci, R., Porrati, F., Benigni, A., Picciolo, C. & Remuzzi, G. (2004) L-arginine depletion in preeclampsia orients nitric oxide synthase toward oxidant species. Hypertension 43: 614-622.
91. Alexander, B. T., Llinas, M. T., Kruckeberg, W. C. & Granger, J. P. (2004) L-arginine attenuates hypertension in pregnant rats with reduced uterine perfusion pressure. Hypertension 43: 832-836.
92. Bergstein, J. M., Hoyer, J. R. & Michael, A. F., Jr. (1974) Glomerular fibrinolytic activity following endotoxin-induced glomerular fibrin deposition in the pregnant rat. Am. J. Pathol. 75: 195-202.
93. Conger, J. D., Falk, S. A. & Guggenheim, S. J. (1981) Glomerular dynamics and morphologic changes in the generalized Shwartzman reaction in postpartum rats. J. Clin. Invest. 67: 1334-1346.
94. Pertuiset, N. & Grunfeld, J. P. (1987) Acute renal failure in pregnancy. Baillieres Clin. Obstet. Gynaecol. 1: 873-890.
95. Ferris, T. (1982) Toxemia and Hypertension. In: Medical Complications During Pregnancy, 2nd ed. (Burrow, G. & Ferris, T., eds.), pp. 1-35. WB Saunders Company, Philadelphia, PA.
96. Raij, L. (1994) Glomerular thrombosis in pregnancy: role of the L-arginine-nitric oxide pathway. Kidney Int. 45: 775-781.