Role of diet and fuel overabundance in the development and progression of heart failure

Cardiovascular Research

Volumn 79, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 269-278

  Chess, David J ^a,b   Stanley, William C ^a,b  

^a CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Diabetes; Diet; Glucotoxicity; Heart; Lipotoxicity

Indexed keywords

FATTY ACID; GLUCOSE; LEPTIN; MONOUNSATURATED FATTY ACID; PEROXISOME PROLIFERATOR ACTIVATED RECEPTOR ALPHA; POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACID;

BODY FAT; CARBOHYDRATE DIET; CARDIOTOXICITY; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIET; DISEASE COURSE; ENERGY METABOLISM; FATTY ACID OXIDATION; GLUCOSE METABOLISM; GLUCOSE OXIDATION; HEART FAILURE; HUMAN; INSULIN SENSITIVITY; LIPID DIET; LIPID METABOLISM; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; DIET; DIETARY CARBOHYDRATES; DIETARY FATS; DISEASE PROGRESSION; EATING; HEART FAILURE; HUMANS;

EID: 46749092545     PISSN: 00086363     EISSN: 17553245     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvn074     Document Type: Review

References (135)

1. Bing RJ. The metabolism of the heart. Harvey Lect 1955;50:27-70.
2. Stanley WC, Recchia FA, Lopaschuk GD. Myocardial substrate metabolism in the normal and failing heart. Physiol Rev 2005;85:1093-1129.
3. Wisneski JA, Stanley WC, Neese RA, Gertz EW. Effects of acute hyperglycemia on myocardial glycolytic activity in humans. J Clin Invest 1990;85:1648-1656.
4. Gertz EW, Wisneski JA, Stanley WC, Neese RA. Myocardial substrate utilization during exercise in humans. Dual carbon-labeled carbohydrate isotope experiments. J Clin Invest 1988;82:2017-2025.
5. Denton RM, Randle PJ. Concentrations of glycerides and phospholipids in rat heart and gastrocnemius muscles. Effects of alloxan-diabetes and perfusion. Biochem J 1967;104:416-422.
6. Opie LH, Evans JR, Shipp JC. Effect of fasting on glucose and palmitate metabolism of perfused rat heart. Am J Physiol 1963;205:1203-1208.
7. Hammer S, van der Meer RW, Lamb HJ, Schar M, de Roos A, Smit JW et al. Progressive caloric restriction induces dose dependent changes in myocardial triglyceride content and diastolic function in healthy men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007;93:497-503.
8. Gupte SA, Levine RJ, Gupte RS, Young ME, Lionetti V, Labinskyy V et al. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase-derived NADPH fuels superoxide production in the failing heart. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2006;41:340- 349.
9. Gupte RS, Vijay V, Marks B, Levine RJ, Sabbah HN, Wolin MS et al. Upregulation of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and NAD(P)H oxidase activity increases oxidative stress in failing human heart. J Card Fail 2007;13:497-506.
10. Smyth MJ, Obeid LM, Hannun YA. Ceramide: a novel lipid mediator of apoptosis. Adv Pharmacol 1997;41:133-154.
11. Schaffer JE. Lipotoxicity: when tissues overeat. Curr Opin Lipidol 2003;14:281-287.
12. Finck BN, Lehman JJ, Leone TC, Welch MJ, Bennett MJ, Kovacs A et al. The cardiac phenotype induced by PPARalpha overexpression mimics that caused by diabetes mellitus. J Clin Invest 2002;109:121-130.
13. Chiu HC, Kovacs A, Ford DA, Hsu FF, Garcia R, Herrero P et al. A novel mouse model of lipotoxic cardiomyopathy. J Clin Invest 2001;107:813-822.
14. Chiu HC, Kovacs A, Blanton RM, Han X, Courtois M, Weinheimer CJ et al. Transgenic expression of fatty acid transport protein 1 in the heart causes lipotoxic cardiomyopathy. Circ Res 2005;96:225-233.
15. Yagyu H, Chen G, Yokoyama M, Hirata K, Augustus A, Kako Y et al. Lipoprotein lipase (LpL) on the surface of cardiomyocytes increases lipid uptake and produces a cardiomyopathy. J Clin Invest 2003;111:419-426.
16. Fulop N, Marchase RB, Chatham JC. Role of protein O-linked N-acetyl-glucosamine in mediating cell function and survival in the cardiovascular system. Cardiovasc Res 2007;73:288-297.
17. Herrmann G, Decherd GM. The chemical nature of heart failure. Ann Intern Med 1939;12:1233-1244.
18. Wollenberger A. On the energy-rich phosphate supply of the failing heart. Am J Physiol 1947;150:733-736.
19. Olson RE, Schwartz WB. Myocardial metabolism in congestive heart failure. Medicine (Baltimore) 1951;30:21-41.
20. Olson RE. Myocardial metabolism in congestive heart failure. J Chronic Dis 1959;9:442-464.
21. van Bilsen M, Smeets PJ, Gilde AJ, van der Vusse GJ. Metabolic remodelling of the failing heart: the cardiac burn-out syndrome? Cardiovasc Res 2004;61:218-226.
22. Neubauer S. The failing heart - an engine out of fuel. N Engl J Med 2007;356:1140-1151.
23. Sparagna GC, Chicco AJ, Murphy RC, Bristow MR, Johnson CA, Rees ML et al. Loss of cardiac tetralinoleoyl cardiolipin in human and experimental heart failure. J Lipid Res 2007;48:1559-1570.
24. Chicco AJ, Sparagna GC. Role of cardiolipin alterations in mitochondrial dysfunction and disease. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2007;292:33-44.
25. Lei B, Lionetti V, Young ME, Chandler MP, D'Agostino C, Kang E et al. Paradoxical downregulation of the glucose oxidation pathway despite enhanced flux in severe heart failure. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2004;36:567-576.
26. Hu FB, Willett WC. Optimal diets for prevention of coronary heart disease. JAMA 2002;288:2569-2578.
27. Saltiel AR. New perspectives into the molecular pathogenesis and treatment of type 2 diabetes. Cell 2001;104:517-529.
28. King H, Aubert RE, Herman WH. Global burden of diabetes, 1995-2025: prevalence, numerical estimates, and projections. Diabetes Care 1998;21:1414-1431.
29. Liu S, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Hu FB, Franz M, Sampson L et al. A prospective study of dietary glycemic load, carbohydrate intake, and risk of coronary heart disease in US women. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:1455- 1461.
30. Halton TL, Willett WC, Liu S, Manson JE, Albert CM, Rexrode K et al. Low-carbohydrate-diet score and the risk of coronary heart disease in women. N Engl J Med 2006;355:1991-2002.
31. Beulens JW, de Bruijne LM, Stolk RP, Peeters PH, Bots ML, Grobbee DE et al. High dietary glycemic load and glycemic index increase risk of cardiovascular disease among middle-aged women: a population-based follow-up study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007;50:14-21.
32. Liu S, Stampfer MJ, Hu FB, Giovannucci E, Rimm E, Manson JE et al. Whole-grain consumption and risk of coronary heart disease: results from the Nurses' Health Study. Am J Clin Nutr 1999;70:412-419.
33. Kris-Etherton PM, Harris WS, Appel LJ. Fish consumption, fish oil, omega-3 fatty acids, and cardiovascular disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2003;23:20-30.
34. Howard BV, Van Horn L, Hsia J, Manson JE, Stefanick ML, Wassertheil-Smoller S et al. Low-fat dietary pattern and risk of cardiovascular disease: the Women's Health Initiative Randomized Controlled Dietary Modification Trial. JAMA 2006;295:655-666.
35. Arora SK, McFarlane SI. The case for low carbohydrate diets in diabetes management. Nutr Metab (Lond) 2005;2:16.
36. Hu FB. Diet and cardiovascular disease prevention the need for a paradigm shift. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007;50:22-24.
37. Oliver MF, Opie LH. Effects of glucose and fatty acids on myocardial ischaemia and arrhythmias. Lancet 1994;343:155-158.
38. Oliver MF, Kurien VA, Greenwood TW. Relation between serum-free-fatty acids and arrhythmias and death after acute myocardial infarction. Lancet 1968;1:710-714.
39. Pilz S, Scharnagl H, Tiran B, Wellnitz B, Seelhorst U, Boehm BO et al. Elevated plasma free fatty acids predict sudden cardiac death: a 6.85-year follow-up of 3315 patients after coronary angiography. Eur Heart J 2007;28:2763-2769.
40. Jouven X, Charles MA, Desnos M, Ducimetiere P. Circulating nonesterified fatty acid level as a predictive risk factor for sudden death in the population. Circulation 2001;104:756-761.
41. Chua BH, Shrago E. Reversible inhibition of adenine nucleotide translocation by long chain acyl-CoA esters in bovine heart mitochondria and inverted submitochondrial particles. Comparison with atractylate and bongkrekic acid. J Biol Chem 1977;252:6711-6714.
42. Korge P, Honda HM, Weiss JN. Effects of fatty acids in isolated mitochondria: implications for ischemic injury and cardioprotection. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2003;285:259-269.
43. Corr PB, Yamada KA. Selected metabolic alterations in the ischemic heart and their contributions to arrhythmogenesis. Herz 1995;20:156-168.
44. Lopaschuk GD, Belke DD, Gamble J, Itoi T, Schonekess BO. Regulation of fatty acid oxidation in the mammalian heart in health and disease. Biochim Biophys Acta 1994;1213:263-276.
45. Bing RJ, Siegel A, Ungar I, Gilbert M. Metabolism of the human heart II. Studies on fat, ketone and amino acid metabolism. Am J Med 1954;16:504-515.
46. Wisneski JA, Gertz EW, Neese RA, Mayr M. Myocardial metabolism of free fatty acids. Studies with 14C-labeled substrates in humans. J Clin Invest 1987;79:359-366.
47. Lopaschuk GD, Folmes CD, Stanley WC. Cardiac energy metabolism in obesity. Circ Res 2007;101:335-347.
48. Neglia D, De Caterina A, Marraccini P, Natali A, Ciardetti M, Vecoli C et al. Impaired myocardial metabolic reserve and substrate selection flexibility during stress in patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2007;293:3270-3278.
49. Davila-Roman VG, Vedala G, Herrero P, de las Fuentes L, Rogers JG, Kelly DP et al. Altered myocardial fatty acid and glucose metabolism in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol 2002;40:271- 277.
50. Randle PJ. Fuel selection in animals. Biochem Soc Trans 1986;14:799-806.
51. Randle PJ, Garland PB, Hales CN, Newsholme EA. The glucose fatty-acid cycle. Its role in insulin sensitivity and the metabolic disturbances of diabetes mellitus. Lancet 1963;1:785-789.
52. Zhou L, Huang H, Yuan CL, Keung W, Lopaschuk GD, Stanley WC. Metabolic response to an acute jump in cardiac workload: effects on malonyl-CoA, mechanical efficiency, and fatty acid oxidation. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2008;294:954-960.
53. Kjekshus JK, Mjos OD. Effect of free fatty acids on myocardial function and metabolism in the ischemic dog heart. J Clin Invest 1972;51:1767-1776.
54. Mjos OD. Effect of free fatty acids on myocardial function and oxygen consumption in intact dogs. J Clin Invest 1971;50:1386-1389.
55. Liedtke AJ, Nellis SH, Mjos OD. Effects of reducing fatty acid metabolism on mechanical function in regionally ischemic hearts. Am J Physiol 1984;247:387-394.
56. Simonsen S, Kjekshus JK. The effect of free fatty acids on myocardial oxygen consumption during atrial pacing and catecholamine infusion in man. Circulation 1978;58:484-491.
57. Mjos OD, Kjekshus J. Increased local metabolic rate by free fatty acids in the intact dog heart. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1971;28:389-393.
58. Korvald C, Elvenes OP, Myrmel T. Myocardial substrate metabolism influences left ventricular energetics in vivo. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2000;278:1345-1351.
59. McGavock JM, Lingvay I, Zib I, Tillery T, Salas N, Unger R et al. Cardiac steatosis in diabetes mellitus: a 1H-magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Circulation 2007;116:1170-1175.
60. Sharma S, Adrogue JV, Golfman L, Uray I, Lemm J, Youker K et al. Intramyocardial lipid accumulation in the failing human heart resembles the lipotoxic rat heart. FASEB J 2004;18:1692-1700.
61. Alpert MA, Singh A, Terry BE, Kelly DL, el Deane MS, Mukerji V et al. Effect of exercise and cavity size on right ventricular function in morbid obesity. Am J Cardiol 1989;64:1361-1365.
62. Alpert MA, Lambert CR, Panayiotou H, Terry BE, Cohen MV, Massey CV et al. Relation of duration of morbid obesity to left ventricular mass, systolic function, and diastolic filling, and effect of weight loss. Am J Cardiol 1995;76:1194-1197.
63. Alpert MA, Lambert CR, Terry BE, Cohen MV, Mukerji V, Massey CV et al. Interrelationship of left ventricular mass, systolic function and diastolic filling in normotensive morbidly obese patients. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1995;19:550-557.
64. Alpert MA, Hashimi MW. Obesity and the heart. Am J Med Sci 1993;306:117-123.
65. Szczepaniak LS, Nurenberg P, Leonard D, Browning JD, Reingold JS, Grundy S et al. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy to measure hepatic triglyceride content: prevalence of hepatic steatosis in the general population. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2005;288:462-468.
66. Szczepaniak LS, Dobbins RL, Metzger GJ, Sartoni-D'Ambrosia G, Arbique D, Vongpatanasin W et al. Myocardial triglycerides and systolic function in humans: in vivo evaluation by localized proton spectroscopy and cardiac imaging. Magn Reson Med 2003;49:417-423.
67. Zhou YT, Grayburn P, Karim A, Shimabukuro M, Higa M, Baetens D et al. Lipotoxic heart disease in obese rats: implications for human obesity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000;97:1784-1789.
68. Unger RH. Lipotoxic diseases. Annu Rev Med 2002;53:319-336.
69. Wakasaki H, Koya D, Schoen FJ, Jirousek MR, Ways DK, Hoit BD et al. Targeted overexpression of protein kinase C beta2 isoform in myocardium causes cardiomyopathy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997;94:9320-9325.
70. Furuno T, Kanno T, Arita K, Asami M, Utsumi T, Doi Y et al. Roles of long chain fatty acids and carnitine in mitochondrial membrane permeability transition. Biochem Pharmacol 2001;62:1037-1046.
71. Scorrano L, Penzo D, Petronilli V, Pagano F, Bernardi P. Arachidonic acid causes cell death through the mitochondrial permeability transition. Implications for tumor necrosis factor-alpha aopototic signaling. J Biol Chem 2001;276:12035-12040.
72. Penzo D, Petronilli V, Angelin A, Cusan C, Colonna R, Scorrano L et al. Arachidonic acid released by phospholipase A(2) activation triggers Ca(2+)-dependent apoptosis through the mitochondrial pathway. J Biol Chem 2004;279:25219-25225.
73. Wrede CE, Dickson LM, Lingohr MK, Briaud I, Rhodes CJ. Protein kinase B/Akt prevents fatty acid-induced apoptosis in pancreatic beta-cells (INS-1). J Biol Chem 2002;277:49676-49684.
74. Kong JY, Rabkin SW. Palmitate-induced cardiac apoptosis is mediated through CPT-1 but not influenced by glucose and insulin. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2002;282:717-725.
75. Huss JM, Kelly DP. Nuclear receptor signaling and cardiac energetics. Circ Res 2004;95:568-578.
76. Finck BN, Han X, Courtois M, Aimond F, Nerbonne JM, Kovacs A et al. A critical role for PPARalpha-mediated lipotoxicity in the pathogenesis of diabetic cardiomyopathy: modulation by dietary fat content. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003;100:1226-1231.
77. Gilde AJ, Van Der Lee KA, Willemsen PH, Chinetti G, Van Der Leij FR, van der Vusse GJ et al. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) {alpha} and PPAR{beta}/{delta}, but not PPAR{gamma}, modulate the expression of genes involved in cardiac lipid metabolism. Circ Res 2003;92:518- 524.
78. Cheng L, Ding G, Qin Q, Xiao Y, Woods D, Chen YE et al. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta activates fatty acid oxidation in cultured neonatal and adult cardiomyocytes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004;313:277-286.
79. DeLuca JG, Doebber TW, Kelly LJ, Kemp RK, Molon-Noblot S, Sahoo SP et al. Evidence for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)alpha-independent peroxisome proliferation: effects of PPARgamma/ delta-specific agonists in PPARalpha-null mice. Mol Pharmacol 2000;58:470-476.
80. Barak Y, Nelson MC, Ong ES, Jones YZ, Ruiz-Lozano P, Chien KR et al. PPAR gamma is required for placental, cardiac, and adipose tissue development. Mol Cell 1999;4:585-595.
81. Miyazaki Y, Mahankali A, Matsuda M, Glass L, Mahankali S, Ferrannini E et al. Improved glycemic control and enhanced insulin sensitivity in type 2 diabetic subjects treated with pioglitazone. Diabetes Care 2001;24:710-719.
82. Park SY, Cho YR, Finck BN, Kim HJ, Higashimori T, Hong EG et al. Cardiac-specific overexpression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha causes insulin resistance in heart and liver. Diabetes 2005;54:2514-2524.
83. Burkart EM, Sambandam N, Han X, Gross RW, Courtois M, Gierasch CM et al. Nuclear receptors PPARbeta/delta and PPARalpha direct distinct metabolic regulatory programs in the mouse heart. J Clin Invest 2007;117:3930-3939.
84. Morgan EE, Rennison JH, Young ME, McElfresh TA, Kung TA, Tserng KY et al. Effects of chronic activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha or high-fat feeding in a rat infarct model of heart failure. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2006;290:1899-1904.
85. Labinskyy V, Bellomo M, Chandler MP, Young ME, Lionetti V, Qanud K et al. Chronic activation of PPAR{alpha} with fenofibrate prevents alterations in cardiac metabolic phenotype without changing the onset of decompensation in pacing-induced heart failure. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2007;321:165- 171.
86. Brigadeau F, Gele P, Wibaux M, Marquie C, Martin-Nizard F, Torpier G et al. The PPARalpha activator fenofibrate slows down the progression of the left ventricular dysfunction in porcine tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 2007;49:408-415.
87. Paradise NF, Pilati CF, Payne WR, Finkelstein JA. Left ventricular function of the isolated, genetically obese rat's heart. Am J Physiol 1985;248:438-444.
88. Young ME, Guthrie PH, Razeghi P, Leighton B, Abbasi S, Patil S et al. Impaired long-chain fatty acid oxidation and contractile dysfunction in the obese Zucker rat heart. Diabetes 2002;51:2587-2595.
89. Barouch LA, Gao D, Chen L, Miller KL, Xu W, Phan AC et al. Cardiac myocyte apoptosis is associated with increased DNA damage and decreased survival in murine models of obesity. Circ Res 2006;98:119-124.
90. Barouch LA, Berkowitz DE, Harrison RW, O'donnell CP, Hare JM. Disruption of leptin signaling contributes to cardiac hypertrophy independently of body weight in mice. Circulation 2003;108:754-759.
91. McGavock JM, Victor RG, Unger RH, Szczepaniak LS. Adiposity of the heart, revisited. Ann Intern Med 2006;144:517-524.
92. Raabe M, Veniant MM, Sullivan MA, Zlot CH, Bjorkegren J, Nielsen LB et al. Analysis of the role of microsomal triglyceride transfer protein in the liver of tissue-specific knockout mice. J Clin Invest 1999;103:1287-1298.
93. Young SG, Cham CM, Pitas RE, Burri BJ, Connolly A, Flynn L et al. A genetic model for absent chylomicron formation: mice producing apolipoprotein B in the liver, but not in the intestine. J Clin Invest 1995;96:2932-2946.
94. Nielsen LB, Veniant M, Boren J, Raabe M, Wong JS, Tam C et al. Genes for apolipoprotein B and microsomal triglyceride transfer protein are expressed in the heart: evidence that the heart has the capacity to synthesize and secrete lipoproteins. Circulation 1998;98:13-16.
95. Boren J, Veniant MM, Young SG. Apo B100-containing lipoproteins are secreted by the heart. J Clin Invest 1998;101:1197-1202.
96. Bjorkegren J, Veniant M, Kim SK, Withycombe SK, Wood PA, Hellerstein MK et al. Lipoprotein secretion and triglyceride stores in the heart. J Biol Chem 2001;276:38511-38517.
97. Nielsen LB, Bartels ED, Bollano E. Overexpression of apolipoprotein B in the heart impedes cardiac triglyceride accumulation and development of cardiac dysfunction in diabetic mice. J Biol Chem 2002;277:27014-27020.
98. Yokoyama M, Yagyu H, Hu Y, Seo T, Hirata K, Homma S et al. Apolipoprotein B production reduces lipotoxic cardiomyopathy: studies in heart specific lipoprotein lipase transgenic mouse. J Biol Chem 2003;279:4204-4211.
99. Lichtenstein AH, Appel LJ, Brands M, Carnethon M, Daniels S, Franch HA et al. Diet and lifestyle recommendations revision 2006: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Nutrition Committee. Circulation 2006;114:82-96.
100. Griel AE, Ruder EH, Kris-Etherton PM. The changing roles of dietary carbohydrates: from simple to complex. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2006;26:1958-1965.
101. Mozaffarian D, Bryson CL, Lemaitre RN, Burke GL, Siscovick DS. Fish intake and risk of incident heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 2005;45:2015-2021.
102. Duda MK, O'Shea KM, Lei B, Barrows BR, Azimzadeh AM, McElfresh TE et al. Dietary supplementation with omega-3 PUFA increases adiponectin and attenuates ventricular remodeling and dysfunction with pressure overload. Cardiovasc Res 2007;76:303-310.
103. Okere IC, Chandler MP, McElfresh TA, Rennison JH, Sharov V, Sabbah HN et al. Differential effects of saturated and unsaturated fatty acid diets on cardiomyocyte apoptosis, adipose distribution, and serum leptin. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2006;291:38-44.
104. Okere IC, Chandler MP, McElfresh TA, Rennison JH, Kung TA, Hoit BD et al. Carnitine palmitoyl transferase-I inhibition is not associated with cardiac hypertrophy in rats fed a high-fat diet. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2007;34:113-119.
105. Sharma N, Okere IC, Duda MK, Johnson J, Yuan CL, Chandler MP et al. High fructose diet increases mortality in hypertensive rats compared to a complex carbohydrate or high fat diet. Am J Hypertens 2007;20:403-409.
106. Okere IC, Young ME, McElfresh TA, Chess DJ, Sharov VG, Sabbah HN et al. Low carbohydrate/high-fat diet attenuates cardiac hypertrophy, remodeling, and altered gene expression in hypertension. Hypertension 2006;48:1116-1123.
107. Kang PM, Yue P, Liu Z, Tarnavski O, Bodyak N, Izumo S. Alterations in apoptosis regulatory factors during hypertrophy and heart failure. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2004;287:72-80.
108. Duda MK, O'Shea KM, Lei B, Barrows BR, Azimzadeh AM, McElfresh TA et al. Low carbohydrate/high fat diet attenuates pressure overload induced ventricular remodeling and dysfunction. J Card Fail 2008
109. Sharma N, Okere IC, Duda MK, Chess DJ, O'Shea KM, Stanley WC. Potential impact of carbohydrate and fat intake on pathological left ventricular hypertrophy. Cardiovasc Res 2007;73:257-268.
110. Chess DJ, Lei B, Hoit BD, Azimzadeh AM, Stanley WC. Effects of a high saturated fat diet on cardiac hypertrophy and dysfunction in response to pressure overload. J Card Fail 2008;14:82-88.
111. Rennison JH, McElfresh TA, Okere IC, Vazquez EJ, Patel HV, Foster AB et al. High-fat diet postinfarction enhances mitochondrial function and does not exacerbate left ventricular dysfunction. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2007;292:1498-1506.
112. Held C, Gerstein HC, Yusuf S, Zhao F, Hilbrich L, Anderson C et al. Glucose levels predict hospitalization for congestive heart failure in patients at high cardiovascular risk. Circulation 2007;115:1371- 1375.
113. Gerstein HC, Capes SE. Dysglycemia: a key cardiovascular risk factor. Semin Vasc Med 2002;2:165-174.
114. Deedwania P, Kosiborod M, Barrett E, Ceriello A, Isley W, Mazzone T et al. Hyperglycemia and acute coronary syndrome. A scientific statement from the american heart association diabetes committee of the council on nutrition, physical activity, and metabolism. Circulation 2008
115. Shiojima I, Yefremashvili M, Luo Z, Kureishi Y, Takahashi A, Tao J et al. Akt signaling mediates postnatal heart growth in response to insulin and nutritional status. J Biol Chem 2002;277:37670-37677.
116. Zachara NE, Hart GW. O-GlcNAc a sensor of cellular state: the role of nucleocytoplasmic glycosylation in modulating cellular function in response to nutrition and stress. Biochim Biophys Acta 2004;1673:13-28.
117. Wells L, Vosseller K, Hart GW. Glycosylation of nucleocytoplasmic proteins: signal transduction and O-GlcNAc. Science 2001;291:2376- 2378.
118. Wells L, Hart GW. O-GlcNAc turns twenty: functional implications for post-translational modification of nuclear and cytosolic proteins with a sugar. FEBS Lett 2003;546:154-158.
119. Matsui R, Xu S, Maitland KA, Mastroianni R, Leopold JA, Handy DE et al. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency decreases vascular superoxide and atherosclerotic lesions in apolipoprotein E(2/2) mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2006;26:910-916.
120. Matsui R, Xu S, Maitland KA, Hayes A, Leopold JA, Handy DE et al. Glucose-6 phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency decreases the vascular response to angiotensin II. Circulation 2005;112:257-263.
121. Cocco P, Todde P, Fornera S, Manca MB, Manca P, Sias AR. Mortality in a cohort of men expressing the glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency. Blood 1998;91:706-709.
122. Augustus AS, Buchanan J, Park TS, Hirata K, Noh HL, Sun J et al. Loss of lipoprotein lipase-derived fatty acids leads to increased cardiac glucose metabolism and heart dysfunction. J Biol Chem 2006;281:8716-8723.
123. Son NH, Park TS, Yamashita H, Yokoyama M, Huggins LA, Okajima K et al. Cardiomyocyte expression of PPARgamma leads to cardiac dysfunction in mice. J Clin Invest 2007;117:2791-2801.
124. Han I, Kudlow JE. Reduced O glycosylation of Sp1 is associated with increased proteasome susceptibility. Mol Cell Biol 1997;17:2550- 2558.
125. Daniel S, Kim KH. Sp1 mediates glucose activation of the acetyl-CoA carboxylase promoter. J Biol Chem 1996;271:1385-1392.
126. Karns LR, Kariya K, Simpson PC. M-CAT, CArG, and Sp1 elements are required for alpha 1-adrenergic induction of the skeletal alpha-actin promoter during cardiac myocyte hypertrophy. Transcriptional enhancer factor-1 and protein kinase C as conserved transducers of the fetal program in cardiac growth. J Biol Chem 1995;270:410-417.
127. Izumo S, Nadal-Ginard B, Mahdavi V. Protooncogene induction and reprogramming of cardiac gene expression produced by pressure overload. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988;85:339-343.
128. Sack MN, Disch DL, Rockman HA, Kelly DP. A role for Sp and nuclear receptor transcription factors in a cardiac hypertrophic growth program. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997;94:6438-6443.
129. Chess DJ, Lei B, Hoit BD, Azimzadeh AM, Stanley WC. Deleterious effects of sugar and protective effects of starch on cardiac remodeling, contractile dysfunction, and mortality in response to pressure overload. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2007;293:1853-1860.
130. Prentki M, Joly E, El Assaad W, Roduit R. Malonyl-CoA signaling, lipid partitioning, and glucolipotoxicity: role in beta-cell adaptation and failure in the etiology of diabetes. Diabetes 2002;51:405-413.
131. Poitout V, Robertson RP. Minireview: Secondary beta-cell failure in type 2 diabetes - a convergence of glucotoxicity and lipotoxicity. Endocrinology 2002;143:339-342.
132. Poitout V, Robertson RP. Glucolipotoxicity: fuel excess and {beta}-cell dysfunction. Endocr Rev 2007
133. Dyntar D, Eppenberger-Eberhardt M, Maedler K, Pruschy M, Eppenberger HM, Spinas GA et al. Glucose and palmitic acid induce degeneration of myofibrils and modulate apoptosis in rat adult cardiomyocytes. Diabetes 2001;50:2105-2113.
134. Jagasia D, Whiting JM, Concato J, Pfau S, McNulty PH. Effect of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus on myocardial insulin responsiveness in patients with ischemic heart disease. Circulation 2001;103:1734- 1739.
135. Leeds AR. Glycemic index and heart disease. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76:286-289.