Twin Peaks Romania and Bulgaria between the EU and the United States

Problems of Post-Communism

Volumn 51, Issue 5, 2004, Pages 45-55

  Linden, Ronald H ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 4644304223     PISSN: 10758216     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10758216.2004.11052178     Document Type: Review

References (89)

1. RFE/RL Newsline (May 16, 2003), available at www.rferl.org.
2. European Union, Legislation and Documentation, Agenda 2000: Summary and Conclusions of the Opinions of Commission Concerning the Applications for Membership to the European Union Presented by the Candidate Countries (Strasbourg and Brussels: EU, My 15, 1997), Document 97/8.
3. European Commission, 2000 Regular Report from the Commission on Romania's Progress Toward Accession (Brussels: European Commission, November 8, 2000), p. 32.
4. European Commission, 2001 Regular Report from the Commission on Romania's Progress Toward Accession (Brussels: European Commission, November 13, 2001), p. 40.
5. Copenhagen European Council, "Presidency Conclusions" (December 12-13, 2002), p. 4, available at http://ue.eu.int/pressData/en/ec/ 73774.pdf.
6. Agenda 2000.
7. European Commission, 2002 Regular Report from the Commission on Bulgaria's Progress Toward Accession (Brussels: European Commission, October 9, 2002); idem, 2002 Regular Report from the Commission on Romania's Progress Toward Accession (Brussels: European Commission, October 9, 2002).
8. European Commission, 2002 Regular Report from the Commission on Bulgaria's Progress Toward Accession (Brussels: European Commission, October 9, 2002); idem, 2002 Regular Report from the Commission on Romania's Progress Toward Accession (Brussels: European Commission, October 9, 2002).
9. On Tudor's views, see Michael Shafir, "Radical Politics in East Central Europe, Part VIII: Radical Continuity in Romania: The Greater Romania Party (B)," RFE/RL East European Perspectives 2, no. 17 (September 13, 2000).
10. Eugen Tomiuc, "Romania: Analysts Question Chances For NATO Membership," RFE/RL Feature (March 16, 2001), available at www.rferl.org/nca/features/2001/03/16032001112437.asp.
11. Alpha Research Ltd., Sofia, survey of May 10, 2003, available at www.aresearch.org.
12. Ronald H. Linden, "Security and Identity in Southeast Europe: Bulgaria, NATO, and the War in Kosovo," in idem, Norms and Nannies: The Impact of International Organizations on the Central and East European States (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002), pp. 179-201.
13. Aleksander Duleba, "Russia and NATO Enlargement, " in Toward an Understanding of Russia, ed. Janusz Bugajski (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 2002), pp. 153-82; Marko Mikkelson, "Russia's Policy Toward Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, and the Baltic States," in ibid., esp. pp. 106-12; Valentinas Mite, "Baltics: Russia Sensitive to Any NATO Troop Deployment," RFE/RL (March 3, 2004) via CDI Russia Weekly, no. 10 (March 5, 2004).
14. Aleksander Duleba, "Russia and NATO Enlargement, " in Toward an Understanding of Russia, ed. Janusz Bugajski (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 2002), pp. 153-82; Marko Mikkelson, "Russia's Policy Toward Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, and the Baltic States," in ibid., esp. pp. 106-12; Valentinas Mite, "Baltics: Russia Sensitive to Any NATO Troop Deployment," RFE/RL (March 3, 2004) via CDI Russia Weekly, no. 10 (March 5, 2004).
15. Aleksander Duleba, "Russia and NATO Enlargement, " in Toward an Understanding of Russia, ed. Janusz Bugajski (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 2002), pp. 153-82; Marko Mikkelson, "Russia's Policy Toward Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, and the Baltic States," in ibid., esp. pp. 106-12; Valentinas Mite, "Baltics: Russia Sensitive to Any NATO Troop Deployment," RFE/RL (March 3, 2004) via CDI Russia Weekly, no. 10 (March 5, 2004).
16. Sergei Ischenko, "A Yankee at the Polish President's Court," Trud (Moscow) (May 8, 2003), via CDI Russia Weekly, no. 256 (May 9, 2003), available at www.cdi.org.
17. Larry L. Watts, "Romania and NATO: The National-Regional Security Nexus," in Almost NATO: Partners and Players in Central and Eastern European Security, ed. Charles Krupnick (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003), pp. 182-83.
18. "Statement of the Vilnius Group Countries on Iraq" (May 7, 2003), available at www.expannato.org/v1003.html.
19. "Eight European Leaders Support Disarming of Iraq, January 30, 2003," statement issued by the U.S. Embassy in Italy (May 9, 2003), available at www.usembassy.it/file2003_01/alia/a3013109.htm.
20. As of April 2003, Bulgaria had closed negotiations on twenty-three of the thirty-one chapters of the acquis communautaire; Romania had closed sixteen. See Eugen Tomiuc, "EU: Romania, Bulgaria Seek Reassurances on 2007 Membership Bids," RFE/RL Feature (September 11, 2003) (www.rferl.org/nca/features/2003/04/16042003171705.asp).
21. Breffni O'Rourke, "EU: Verheugen Defends Candidates in Row over Support for U.S.," RFE/RL Feature (September 11, 2003) (www.rferl.org/nca/features/2003/03/18032003174033.asp).
22. RFE/RL Newsline (June 23, 2003); Bulgarian News Network [hereafter BNN] (April 14, 2003); Agence France-Presse (February 18, 2003), via World News Connection [hereinafter WNC] (February 19, 2003). Romania's foreign minister, Mircea Geoana, called this a "false loyalty dilemma" (Rompres [January 24, 2003], via WNC [January 27, 2003]).
23. RFE/RL Newsline (June 23, 2003); Bulgarian News Network [hereafter BNN] (April 14, 2003); Agence France-Presse (February 18, 2003), via World News Connection [hereinafter WNC] (February 19, 2003). Romania's foreign minister, Mircea Geoana, called this a "false loyalty dilemma" (Rompres [January 24, 2003], via WNC [January 27, 2003]).
24. Extraordinary European Council on Iraq, "Conclusions" (February 17, 2003). Available at http://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/iraq/ intro/ec170203.htm.
25. See the discussion in Ahto Lobjakas and Kathleen Knox, "EU: Candidates Sign Up to Bloc's Position On Iraq, Although Chirac Jibes Steal Limelight," RFE/RL Feature (September 11, 2003), available at www.rferl.org/nca/features/2003/02/18022003164035.asp.
26. O'Rourke, "EU: Verheugen"; Verheugen also indicated that he was "disappointed" by Bulgaria's position (RFE/RL Newsline [March 17, 2003]).
27. "Chirac Lashes out at 'New Europe,'" CNN, available at www.cnn.com (February 18, 2003).
28. Mediafax (Bucharest) (June 19, 2003), via WNC (June 19, 2003).
29. BNN (February 9, 2003).
30. Bulgaria was promised some portion of the $54 million its involvement was expected to cost (RFE/RL Newsline [August 11, 2003)], whereas Romania got $26 million in direct aid from the United States (Rompres [June 12, 2003], via WNC [June 12, 2003]).
31. Council of Ministers, Government of Bulgaria, "Press conference of the Prime Minister Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and the U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell," available at www.government.bg/English/Print/ 1316.html; "U.S. Eyes Romania for Bases," BBC News (July 7, 2003).
32. Council of Ministers, Government of Bulgaria, "Press conference of the Prime Minister Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and the U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell," available at www.government.bg/English/Print/ 1316.html; "U.S. Eyes Romania for Bases," BBC News (July 7, 2003).
33. Bulgarian News Agency (BTA) (February 20, 2003), via WNC (February 21, 2003).
34. BNN (April 11, 2003), (March 28, 2003).
35. BNN (March 28, 2003) and (March 26, 2003); Associated Press (April 4, 2003); RFE/RL Newsline (February 18, 2003) and (March 17, 2003).
36. BNN (March 28, 2003) and (March 26, 2003); Associated Press (April 4, 2003); RFE/RL Newsline (February 18, 2003) and (March 17, 2003).
37. BNN (March 28, 2003) and (March 26, 2003); Associated Press (April 4, 2003); RFE/RL Newsline (February 18, 2003) and (March 17, 2003).
38. WNC Media Analysis (July 2, 2003); RFE/RL Newsline (March 17, 2003). BNN (June 26, 2003) reported in mid-2003 that 35 percent of Bulgarians supported the establishment of U.S. military bases in the country, up from 17 percent at the end of 2002.
39. WNC Media Analysis (July 2, 2003); RFE/RL Newsline (March 17, 2003). BNN (June 26, 2003) reported in mid-2003 that 35 percent of Bulgarians supported the establishment of U.S. military bases in the country, up from 17 percent at the end of 2002.
40. Daniel C. Thomas, "Clash of Democracies: Transatlantic Relations and the International Criminal Court" (Department of Political Science, University of Pittsburgh, June 16, 2003).
41. This article allows states not to surrender someone to the court if doing so is "inconsistent" with an international agreement they have with another state. The Rome Statute is available at www.un.org/law/icc/statute/romefra.htm.
42. See Ivo H. Daalder and James M. Lindsay, America Unbound: The Bush Revolution in Foreign Policy (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2003); John Dumbrell, "Unilateralism and 'America First' ? President George W. Bush's Foreign Policy," Political Quarterly 73, no. 3 (July 2002): 279-87. For U.S. government reaction, see "Powell Rejects Charges of U.S. Unilateralism in Foreign Policy," U.S. Mission to the European Union (December 26, 3003), available at www.useu.be.
43. See Ivo H. Daalder and James M. Lindsay, America Unbound: The Bush Revolution in Foreign Policy (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2003); John Dumbrell, "Unilateralism and 'America First' ? President George W. Bush's Foreign Policy," Political Quarterly 73, no. 3 (July 2002): 279-87. For U.S. government reaction, see "Powell Rejects Charges of U.S. Unilateralism in Foreign Policy," U.S. Mission to the European Union (December 26, 3003), available at www.useu.be.
44. See Ivo H. Daalder and James M. Lindsay, America Unbound: The Bush Revolution in Foreign Policy (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2003); John Dumbrell, "Unilateralism and 'America First' ? President George W. Bush's Foreign Policy," Political Quarterly 73, no. 3 (July 2002): 279-87. For U.S. government reaction, see "Powell Rejects Charges of U.S. Unilateralism in Foreign Policy," U.S. Mission to the European Union (December 26, 3003), available at www.useu.be.
45. Thomas, "Clash of Democracies," pp. 12-15, 20-28. In addition, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe and the European Parliament passed resolutions declaring the bilateral agreements incompatible with the ICC statute.
46. Ibid. In addition, French nationals are exempt from prosecution for war crimes for the first seven years of the court's existence (ibid., p. 9).
47. "U.S. and Romania Sign Article 98 Agreement," U.S. Department of State, Press Statement, August 1, 2002, available at www.state.gov/r/ pa/prs/ps/2002/12393pf.htm.
48. BNN (June 25, 2003).
49. Chasa (Sofia) (January 7, 2003), via WNC (January 7, 2003); Chasa (September 2, 2002), via WNC (September 2, 2002)
50. Chasa (Sofia) (January 7, 2003), via WNC (January 7, 2003); Chasa (September 2, 2002), via WNC (September 2, 2002)
51. Thomas, "Clash of Democracies," p. 26.
52. European Commission, 2002 Regular Report, p. 120.
53. Ziua (Bucharest) (November 12, 2002), via WNC (November 15, 2002).
54. RFE/RL Newsline (July 2, 3003). For a discussion of Croatia, see Mieczyslaw P. Boduszynski and Kristina Balalovska, "Between a Rock and a Hard Place: Croatia, Macedonia, and the Battle over Article 98," Problems of Post-Communism 51, no. 1 (January/February 2004): 18-30.
55. RFE/RL Newsline (July 2, 3003). For a discussion of Croatia, see Mieczyslaw P. Boduszynski and Kristina Balalovska, "Between a Rock and a Hard Place: Croatia, Macedonia, and the Battle over Article 98," Problems of Post-Communism 51, no. 1 (January/February 2004): 18-30.
56. RFE/RL Newsline (June 27, 2003); Rompres (June 25, 2003), via WNC (June 27, 2003). This was recognized by the EU in its 2003 report: European Commission, 2003 Regular Report on Romania's Progress Towards Accession, available at http://europa.eu.int/comm/enlargement/re-port_2003/index.htm.
57. RFE/RL Newsline (June 27, 2003); Rompres (June 25, 2003), via WNC (June 27, 2003). This was recognized by the EU in its 2003 report: European Commission, 2003 Regular Report on Romania's Progress Towards Accession, available at http://europa.eu.int/comm/enlargement/re-port_2003/index.htm.
58. Ralf Dahrendorf, "Can European Democracy Survive Globalization?" National Interest 65 (fall 2001): 17-22.
59. See the discussion in Ronald H. Linden, "Liberalization and Foreign Policy in East Europe," in Liberalization and Foreign Policy, ed. Miles Kahler (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), pp. 165-91.
60. Alexander Konovalov, "New Wave of NATO Expansion: How Will It Affect Partnership with Russia?" RIA Novosti (March 30, 2004), via GDI Russia Weekly, no. 10 (April 2, 2004).
61. Eugen Tomiuc, "Romania/Russia: Political Treaty Sealed After Decade of Uneasy Relations," RFE/RL Feature (September 15, 2003), available at www.rferl.org/nca/features/2003/05/06052003153923.asp.
62. European Commission, Candidate Countries Eurobarometer 2003 and 2002, available at http://europa.eu.int/comm/public_opinion/.
63. Linden, "Security and Identity in Southeast Europe."
64. See the comments by the president of the European Commission, Romano Prodi, BNN (May 8, 2003), by Gunter Verheugen, Rompres (Feb ruary 20, 2003), via WNC (February 21, 2003), and by Jacques Chirac, BNN (April 4, 2003).
65. European Council, "Presidency Conclusions" (Thessaloniki: June 19-20, 2003), p. 10, available at http://europa.eu.int/futurum/documents/ other/oth200603_en.pdf.
66. Pari (Sofia) (July 15, 2003), via WNC (July 17, 2003); Trud (February 21, 2003), via WNC (February 24, 2003).
67. Pari (Sofia) (July 15, 2003), via WNC (July 17, 2003); Trud (February 21, 2003), via WNC (February 24, 2003).
68. To Vima (Athens) (April 5, 2003), via WNC (April 7, 2003).
69. BTA (March 9, 2003), via BBC Monitoring (March 10, 2003).
70. Trud (Sofia) (February 10, 2003), via WNC (February 11, 2003).
71. BTA (May 26, 2003), via WNC (May 27, 2003); Trud (Sofia) (May 15, 2003), via WNC (May 16, 2003).
72. BTA (May 26, 2003), via WNC (May 27, 2003); Trud (Sofia) (May 15, 2003), via WNC (May 16, 2003).
73. A survey by the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance found that more than 20 percent of Bulgarians trusted George W. Bush, whereas some 50 percent of Romanians trusted him. IDEA, SEE Public Agenda Survey (Stockholm: IDEA, January/February 2002), available at www.idea.int/Balkans/. A Gallup poll done in January 2003 found that 48 percent of Romanians felt that U.S. foreign policy had a positive impact on their country, whereas only 25 percent of Bulgarians felt this way (Mediafax [February 1, 2003], via WNC [February 2, 2003]).
74. Lavinia Stan, "Democratic Delusions: Ten Myths Held by the Romanian Democratic Opposition," Problems of Post-Communism 50, no. 6 (November/December 2003): 51-60.
75. KFE/RL Newsline (August 12, 2003); Rompres (March 27, 2003), via WNC (March 28, 2003); Rompres (January 31, 2003), via WNC (February 3, 2003).
76. KFE/RL Newsline (August 12, 2003); Rompres (March 27, 2003), via WNC (March 28, 2003); Rompres (January 31, 2003), via WNC (February 3, 2003).
77. KFE/RL Newsline (August 12, 2003); Rompres (March 27, 2003), via WNC (March 28, 2003); Rompres (January 31, 2003), via WNC (February 3, 2003).
78. BNN (July 1, 2003).
79. The United States waived this provision for Romania until May 1, 2004. See Washington Working Group in the International Criminal Court, "Bilateral Immunity Agreements: Breakdown of Countries," available at www.wfa.org/issues/wicc/article98/article98home.html.
80. Eugen Tomiuc, "Eastern Europe: Do Citizens of Vilnius 10 Support Action Against Iraq, or Only Their Government?" RFE/RL Feature (May 7, 2003), available at www.rferl.org/nca/features/2003/02/07022003192525.asp. A poll in Bulgaria in February showed only 19 percent support for the U.S. position (www.cbsnews.com, March 7, 2003).
81. Eugen Tomiuc, "Eastern Europe: Do Citizens of Vilnius 10 Support Action Against Iraq, or Only Their Government?" RFE/RL Feature (May 7, 2003), available at www.rferl.org/nca/features/2003/02/07022003192525.asp. A poll in Bulgaria in February showed only 19 percent support for the U.S. position (www.cbsnews.com, March 7, 2003).
82. However, like the socialists in Bulgaria, most of the representatives of the Greater Romania Party abstained on key votes to send troops to Iraq or make Romanian airspace available. Mediafax (February 12, 2003), via WNC (February 13, 2003); Rompres (February 11, 2003), via WNC (February 12, 2003). On the Bulgarian vote, see RFE/RL Newsline (February 10, 2003).
83. BTA (May 27, 2003), via WNC (May 28, 2003).
84. IDEA, SEE Public Agenda Survey.
85. Fundatia pentru o Societate Deschisa-Romania (2003) [Foundation for an Open Society - Romania (2003)], Barometrul de Opinie Publica, Romania [Barometer of Public Opinion, Romania] (Bucharest: Gallup Organization, May 2003). One opinion poll in Bulgaria even suggested that in the face of the government's performance, the prime minister's approval rating had been helped by his foreign policy actions (BTA [March 19, 2003] via WNC [March 20, 2003]).
86. Richard Sobel, The Impact of Public Opinion on U.S. Foreign Policy Since Vietnam (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 10.
87. Cited in ibid., p. 13.
88. Robert Putnam, "Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: The Logic of Two-Level Games," International Organization 42, no. 3 (summer 1988): 427-60.
89. Quoted in Tomiuc, "Eastern Europe."