Warming the poor and growing consumers: Fuel philanthropy in the early republic's urban north

Journal of American History

Volumn 95, Issue 1, 2008, Pages 69-94

  Adams, Sean Patrick ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 46249092312     PISSN: 00218723     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/25095465     Document Type: Review

References (164)

1. Philadelphia American Daily Advertiser, Jan. 25, 28, 1805;
2. Eliza Cope Harrison, ed., Philadelphia Merchant: The Diary of Thomas P. Cope, 1800-1851 (South Bend, 1978), 178;
3. Charles Peirce, A Meteorological Account of the Weather in Philadelphia, from January 1, 1790 to January 1, 1847, Including Fifty-Seven Years (Philadelphia, 1847), 37-38;
4. James Mease, The Picture of Philadelphia, Giving an Account of Its Origin, Increase in Improvements in Arts, Science, Manufactures, Commerce and Revenue with a Compendious View of Its Societies, Literary, Benevolent, Patriotic & Religious, Its Police, the Public Buildings, the Prison and Penetentiary System, Institutions, Monied and Civil, Museum (Philadelphia, 1811), 40-41.
5. Billy G. Smith, The "Lower Sort": Philadelphia's Laboring People, 1750-1800 (Ithaca, 1990), 101-6;
6. Susan E. Klepp, "The Working Poor in Philadelphia: Gender and Infant Mortality," in Down and Out in Early America, ed. Billy G. Smith (University Park, 2004), 73. Extant Philadelphia records do not reveal mortality statistics for what is now called hypothermia, but cold conditions undoubtedly amplified more commonly labeled disorders such as "decay" and "disability" in the early republic
7. See ibid.;
8. and Susan E. Klepp, ed., "The Swift Progress of Population": A Documentary and Bibliographic Study of Philadelphia's Growth, 1642-1859 (Philadelphia, 1991).
9. See also Seth Rockman, Scraping By: Wage Labor, Slavery and Survival in Early Baltimore (forthcoming, Baltimore), chap. 6. Dorothy C. Barck, ed., Letters from John Pintard to His Daughter, Eliza Noel Pintard Davidson, 1816-1833, vol. I: 1816-1820 (New York, 1940), 56.
10. Carl Bridenbaugh, Cities in the Wilderness: The First Century of Urban Life in America, 1625-1742 (New York, 1938), 11-12.
11. The firewood market in American cities remains somewhat of a puzzle for economic historians. See, for example, Arthur H. Cole, "The Mystery of Fuel Wood Marketing in the United States," Business History Review, 44 (Autumn 1970), 339-59;
12. or Donna J. Rilling, "Sylvan Enterprise and the Philadelphia Hinterland, 1790-1860," Pennsylvania History, 67 (Spring 2000), 194-217.
13. T.H. Breen, The Marketplace of Revolution: How Consumer Politics Shaped American Independence (New York, 2004), 20;
14. Joyce Appleby, "Consumption in Early Modern Social Thought," in Consumption and the World of Goods, ed. John Brewer and Roy Porter (New York, 1993), 169, 172;
15. John E. Crowley, The Invention of 'Comfort: Sensibilities and Design in Early Modern Britain and Early America (Baltimore, 2001), 171-90, and esp. 168.
16. See also the essays in Cary Carson, Ronald Hoffman, and Peter J. Albert, eds., Of Consuming Interests: The Style of Life in the Eighteenth Century (Charlottesville, 1994).
17. Sidney W. Mintz, Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (New York, 1985), 96.
18. On the "democratization" of sweets in America, see Wendy A. Woloson, Refined Tastes: Sugar, Confectionary, and Consumers in Nineteenth-Century America (Baltimore, 2002), 2-16.
19. Richard L. Bushman, The Refinement of America: Persons, Houses, Cities (New York, 1992), 407.
20. For an interpretation that moderates the notion of a consumer "revolution" and highlights its regional character, see Paul G. E. Clemens, "The Consumer Culture of the Middle Adantic, 1760-1820," William and Mary Quarterly, 62 (Oct. 2005), 577-624.
21. For more on the producerist perspective, see Sean Wilentz, Chants Democratic: New York City and the Rise of the American Working Class, 1788-1850 (New York, 1984), 145-71;
22. Daniel Horowitz, The Morality of Spending: Attitudes toward the Consumer Society in America, 1875-1940 (Baltimore, 1985), 1-12;
23. and Bruce Laurie, Artisans into Workers: Labor in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1989), 47-73.
24. [William Heighten], An Address to the Members of Trade Societies and to the Working Classes Generally: Being an Exposition of the Relative Situation, Condition, and Future Prospects of Working People in the United States of America. Together With a Suggestion and Outlines of a Plan, By Which They May Gradually and Indefinitely Improve their Condition (Philadelphia, 1827), 3;
25. Kathleen G. Donahue, Freedom from Want: American Liberalism and the Idea of the Consumer (Baltimore, 2003), 8-40;
26. Lawrence B. Glickman, A Living Wage: American Workers and the Making of Consumer Society (Ithaca, 1997), 95-98.
27. On early fuel scarcities, see Bridenbaugh, Cities in the Wilderness, 12, 151-52, 311.
28. Benjamin Franklin, An Account of the New Invented Pennsylvanian Fire-Places: Wherein Their Construction and Manner of Operation is Particularly Explained (Philadelphia, 1744), 1;
29. Benjamin Franklin, "Description of a New Stove for Burning of Pitcoal and Consuming All Its Smoke," Transactions of the American Philosophical Society Held at Philadelphia, for Promoting Useful Knowledge, 2 (1786), 71;
30. Josephine H. Peirce, Fire on the Hearth: The Evolution and Romance of the Heating-Stove (Springfield, Mass., 1951), 39-69.
31. Benjamin Thompson, "Of the Fundamental Principles on Which General Establishments for the Relief of the Poor may be formed in all Countries," in Essays, Political, Economical, and Philosophical, by Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford, vol. I (Boston, 1798), 178;
32. Lawrence Wright, Home Fires Burning: The History of Domestic Heating and Cooking (London, 1964), 113-18;
33. Sanborn C. Brown, Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), 163-76.
34. Advertisement, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Held at Philadelphia, for Promoting Useful Knowledge, 4 (1799), v;
35. "On Fireplaces," Oct. 16, 1796, box 5, Manuscript Communications, American Philosophical Society Archives (American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, Pa.);
36. Prisvcilla J. Brewer, From Fireplace to Cookstove: Technology and the Domestic Ideal in America (Syracuse, 2000), 39, 43;
37. Clemens, "Consumer Culture of the Middle Atlantic," 592-94.
38. Daniel Pettibone, Description of the Improvements of the Rarifying Air-Stove, for Warming and Ventilating Hospitals, Churches, Colleges, Courts of Justice, Dwellinghouses, Hot or Greenhouses, Manufactories, Banks, Barracks, Ships, script Q sign c. script Q sign c. (Philadelphia, 1810), 19-25;
39. Lillian B. Miller, ed., The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family, vol. II, part 1: Charles Willson Peale: The Artist as Museum Keeper, 1791-1810 (New Haven, 1988), 210;
40. Brewer, From Fireplace to Cookstove, 42-45.
41. In the eighteenth century it was not unusual for the Philadelphia Almshouse to admit men and women with "'frosted' feet and hands," but the staff did not encourage such admissions, according to Simon P. Newman, Embodied History: The Lives of the Poor in Early Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 2003), 36-37.
42. See Monique Borque, "Poor Relief 'Without Violating the Rights of Humanity': Almshouse Administration in the Philadelphia Region, 1790-1860," in Down and Out in Early America, ed. Smith, 189-212;
43. Gary B. Nash, "Poverty and Poor Relief in Pre-Revolutionary Philadelphia," William and Mary Quarterly, 33 (Jan. 1976), 6, 12-13;
44. and John K. Alexander, Render Them Submissive: Responses to Poverty in Philadelphia, 1760-1800 (Amherst, 1980), 103-21, 124-25.
45. Gary B. Nash, The Urban Crucible: Social Change, Political Consciousness, and the Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), 187-93;
46. Conrad Edick Wright, The Transformation of Charity in Postrevolutionary New England (Boston, 1992), 52-53;
47. Alexander, Render Them Submissive, 123-24;
48. New York Daily Advertiser,Jan. 13, 1791;
49. Robert E. Cray Jr., Paupers and Poor Relief in New York City and Its Rural Environs, 1700-1830 (Philadelphia, 1988), 102;
50. Harrison, ed., Philadelphia Merchant, 176-77.
51. Boston Fuel Society (Boston, 1813);
52. Raymond A. Mohl, Poverty in New York, 1783-1825 (New York, 1971), 142-43.
53. Raymond A. Mohl, "Humanitarianism in the Preindustrial City: The New York Society for the Prevention of Pauperism, 1817-1823," Journal of American History, 57 (Dec. 1970), 576-99;
54. Society for the Prevention of Pauperism in the City of New York, The Fourth Annual Report of the Managers of the Society for the Prevention of Pauperism (New York, 1821 ), 30;
55. Society for the Prevention of Pauperism in the City of New York, Fifth Report of the Society for the Prevention of Pauperism in the City of New York (New York, 1821), 21;
56. Josiah Quincy, Report of the Committee on the Subject of Pauperism and a House of Industry in the Town of Boston (Boston, 1821), 10.
57. On the coupling of philanthropic and market principles in antebellum America, see, for example, Mohl, Poverty in New York, 241-58;
58. Priscilla Ferguson Clement, Welfare and the Poor in the Nineteenth-Century City: Philadelphia, 1800-1854 (Rutherford, 1985), 50-66;
59. Lori D. Ginzberg, Women and the Work of Benevolence: Morality, Politics, and Class in the Nineteenth-Century United States (New Haven, 1990), 36-66;
60. Kathleen Waters Sander, The Business of Charity: The Woman's Exchange Movement, 1832-1900 (Urbana, 1998), 11-37;
61. Kathleen D. McCarthy, American Creed: Philanthropy and Rise of Civil Society, 1700-1865 (Chicago, 2003), 78-97;
62. and Seth Rockman, Welfare Reform in the Early Republic: A Brief History with Documents (Boston, 2003), 1-33.
63. Andrew Schocket, Founding Corporate Power in Early National Philadelphia (DeKalb, 2007), 171-202;
64. "An Act to Confer on Certain Associations of the Citizens of this Commonwealth the Powers and Immunities of Corporations, or Bodies Politic in Law," in Laws of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, From the 14th Day of October, 1700 to March 20, 1810, vol. III (Philadelphia, 1810), 20-22;
65. Mohl, "Humanitarianism in the Preindustrial City," 587-88. On savings banks and their relationship to class-based philanthropy, see Rohit Daniel Wadhwani, "Citizen Savers: The Family Economy, Financial Institutions, and Social Policy in the Northeastern U.S. from the Market Revolution to the Great Depression" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2000), 87-96.
66. Boston Daily Advertiser, April 27, 1821;
67. Plan of the Boston Fuel Savings Institution. Instituted April, 1821 (Boston, 1821) (broadside in American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, Mass.);
68. "Boston Fuel Savings Institution," Christian Disciple and Theological Review, March 1, 1821, p. 158;
69. Boston Christian Register, Sept. 20, 1822.
70. Fuel Savings Society of the City and Liberties of Philadelphia, Plan of the Fuel Savings Society, of the City and Liberties of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1821), 3;
71. Reife Philadelphia Gazette and Daily Advertiser, Jan. 9, 1821;
72. Fuel Savings Society of the City and Liberties of Philadelphia, A Penny Saved is a Penny Earned (Philadelphia, 1846), 6;
73. Fuel Savings Society of the City and Liberties of Philadelphia, Constitution of the Fuel Savings Society of the City and Liberties of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1838), 4.
74. Barck, ed., Letters from John Pintard to His Daughter, I, 7, 257;
75. Friend to the Poor, A Brief Appeal, to the Benevolent and Religious of all Classes, in Favour of Useful Instruction to the Poor and Ignorant of the City of New York (New York, 1823), 6;
76. Mohl, Poverty in New York, 251-52;
77. New York Commercial Advertiser, April 6, 14, 21, 1827.
78. Boston Christian Register, Jan. 25, Sept. 20, 1822, April 21, 1827.
79. Hazard's Register of Pennsylvania, May 16, 1829, Aug. 15, 1835;
80. "Address of the Fuel Savings Society of the City of Philadelphia," Friends'Review, April 26, 1856, pp. 541-43;
81. Mathew Carey, An Appeal to the Wealthy of the Land Ladies as Well as Gentlemen, on the Character, Conduct, Situation, and Prospects of Those Whose Sole Dependence for Subsistence is on the Labour of their Hands (Philadelphia, 1833), 10, 15;
82. Fuel Savings Society of the City and Liberties of Philadelphia, Constitution and By Laws of the Board of Managers of the Fuel Savings Society of the City and Liberties of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1846), 3.
83. J. Thomas Scharf and Thompson Westcott, History of Philadelphia, 1609-1884, vol. II (Philadelphia, 1884), 1479;
84. Clement, Welfare and the Poor in the Nineteenth-Century City, 79, 179;
85. New York (City) Common Council, Minutes of the Common Council of the City of New York, 1784-1831, vol. XI: 1820-1821 (New York, 1917), 452;
86. Philadelphia Mechanic's Free Press, Jan. 9, 1830.
87. Mease, Picture of Philadelphia, 124-25;
88. Erskine Hazard, "History of the Introduction of Anthracite Coal into Philadelphia. . . . and a Letter from Jesse Fell," Memoirs of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, 2 (1827), 155-64.
89. On the early campaign to promote anthracite, see H. Benjamin Powell, Philadelphia's First Fuel Crisis: Jacob Cist and the Developing Market for Pennsylvania Anthracite (University Park, 1978).
90. The weight of a bushel of coal was not standardized until the mid-nineteenth century. In the period discussed in this essay, it ranged from 60 to 90 pounds. Powell, Philadelphia's First Fuel Crisis, 60-63;
91. Donald R. Adams Jr., "Wage Rates in the Early National Period: Philadelphia, 1785-1830," Journal of Economic History, 28 (Sept. 1968), 406;
92. Brewer, From Fireplace to Cookstove, 64-65, 79.
93. Theodore B. Klein, The Canals of Pennsylvania and the System of Internal Improvements (Harrisburg, 1901), 4-7, 11-12;
94. Edward Gibbons, "The Building of the Schuylkill Navigation System, 1815-1828," Pennsylvania History, 57 (Jan. 1990), 13-43;
95. John Hoffman, "Anthracite in the Lehigh Valley of Pennsylvania, 1820-1845," United Staus National Museum Bulletin, 252 (paper 72, 1968), 91-141;
96. Sean Patrick Adams, Old Dominion, Industrial Commonwealth: Coal, Politics, and Economy in Antebellum America (Baltimore, 2004), 65-70.
97. Cadwalader Evans knew about the timing of fuel markets firsthand, as he had aggressively advertised 600 cords of oak and 120 of pine in the severe winter of 1809. See Reift Philadelphia Gazette and Daily Advertiser, Feb. 14, 1809;
98. Philadelphia American Daily Advertiser, Feb. 16, 1809;
99. Philadelphia Political and Commercial Register, Feb. 20, 1809;
100. Address of the President and Managers of the Schuylkill Navigation Company, to the Stockholders and to the Publick in General (Philadelphia, 1817), 7.
101. Frederick M. Binder, "Anthracite Enters the American Home," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, 82 (Jan. 1958), 92;
102. Hazard, "History of the Introduction of Anthracite Coal into Philadelphia.... and a Letter from Jesse Fell," 163;
103. Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company, "Extract of a Letter from Philadelphia, dated October 13, 1825," in Facts Illustrative of the Character of the Anthracite, or Lehigh Coal, Found in the Great Mines at Mauch Chunk, in Possession of the Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company with Certificates from Various Manufacturers, and Others, Proving Its Decided Superiority Over Every Other Kind of Fuel (Philadelphia, 1827), 16-17.
104. Adams, Old Dominion, Industrial Commonwealth, 2-3;
105. Robert Roberts, The House Servant's Directory; or, A Monitor for Private Families (Boston, 1827), 159;
106. Amateur, Directions for the Use of Anthracite Coal ([New York], [1835]), 7;
107. Eliza Leslie, The House Book; or, A Manual of Domestic Economy (Philadelphia, 1840), 135;
108. Denison Olmsted, Observations on the Use of Anthracite Coal (Cambridge, Mass., 1836), 4.
109. Amateur, Directions for the Use of Anthracite Coal, 5, 8, 12;
110. David Claypoole Johnston, "Anti-Phlogistic," 1 of 4 images forming the engraving Scraps No. 3 for 1832, by David Claypoole Johnston (Boston, 1832) (engraving in Print Department, Library Company of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pa.).
111. In 1831 the Fuel Savings Society (FSS) estimated that a poor family in Philadelphia consumed about 2.5 cords of wood in the winter, which cost around $15. Anthracite coal with equivalent heating value - the FSS calculated about 2 tons - cost around $9. But a conversion from wood to anthracite fuel would require investing in either an anthracite grate or a stove, which the FSS did not include in its analysis. See Fuel Savings Society of the City and Liberties of Philadelphia, A History of the Fuel Savings Society of the City and Liberties of Philadelphia from its Organization to 1871 (Philadelphia, 1875), 7-8.
112. Union Benevolent Association, First Annual Report of the Executive Board of the Union Benevolent Association (Philadelphia, 1832), 3;
113. Minutes, Sept. 6, 1832, Oct. 28, 1833, "Board of Managers Minutes, 1831-1854," ser. 1, ms. vol. 1, Union Benevolent Association Records (Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia);
114. W. H. Keating, Considerations upon the Art of Mining. To Which Are Added Reflections on Its Actual State in Europe, and the Advantages Which Would Result from an Introduction of This Art into the United States (Philadelphia, 1821). William Keating died in 1840 (while in London negotiating a loan for the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad), perhaps too early to profit from the railroad's coal-carrying business. But he surely aspired to profit from it.
115. Binder, "Anthracite Enters the American Home," 94; Cornelius Stevenson Receipt Book (Historical Society of Pennsylvania).
116. Philadelphia Gazette and Advertiser, Jan. 19, 1831;
117. Baltimore Niles' Register, Jury 16, 1831;
118. Fuel Savings Society of Philadelphia, History of the Fuel Savings Society, 9;
119. Union Benevolent Association, Union Benevolent Association, 1831-1881: Fifty Years of Work Among the Poor of Philadelphia, Historical Sketch of the First Half-Century of the Union Benevolent Association (Philadelphia, 1881), 25;
120. Priscilla Ferguson Clement, "Nineteenth-Century Welfare Policy, Programs, and Poor Women: Philadelphia as a Case Study," Feminist Studies, 18 (Spring 1992), 38.
121. Estimates on the cost of stoves come from Brewer, From Fireplace to Cookstove, 79.
122. Fuel Savings Society of Philadelphia, A History of the Fuel Savings Society 10;
123. Union Benevolent Association, Second Annual Report of the Executive Board of the Union Benevolent Association (Philadelphia, 1833), 3;
124. Union Benevolent Association, The Seventh Annual Report of the Union Benevolent Association. Read at the Annual Meeting October 23, 1838 (Philadelphia, 1838), 4;
125. Minutes, Nov. 15, 1842, Nov. 25, 1845, "Board of Managers Minutes, 1831-1854," ser. 1, ms. vol. 1, Union Benevolent Association Records; Union Benevolent Association, Eighteenth Annual Report of the Executive Board and of the Ladies' Board of Managers of the Union Benevolent Association (Philadelphia, 1849), 5.
126. Address to the Public by the Lackawaxan Coal Mine and Navigation Company Relative to the Proposed Canal from the Hudson to the Head Waters of the Lackawaxan River (New York, 1824), 7-8;
127. Dorothy Hurlbut Sanderson, The Delaware and Hudson Canalway: Carrying Coals to Rondout (Ellenville, 1965), 3-4.
128. Edwin D. LeRoy, The Delaware and Hudson Canal: A History (Honesdale, 1950), 12, 21;
129. Manville B. Wakefield, Coal Boats to Tidewater: The Story of the Delaware and Hudson Canal (South Fallsburg, 1965), 3;
130. Kingston Ulsur Sentinel, Dec. 24, 1828.
131. New York Commercial Advertiser, Jan. 30, 1828;
132. Delaware and Hudson Canal Company, Annual Report of the Board of Managers of the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company to the Stockholders for the Year 1831 (New York, 1832), 4;
133. A Stockholder of the Morris Canal, Letter to John Wurtz, Esq. with Case and Opinion (New York, [1831]), 11.
134. See also A Review by a Stockholder of the Morris Canal of the "Views of a Stockholder, in Relation to the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company"(Jersey City, 1831).
135. New York Evening Post, Jan. 17, 26, Feb. 11, 1831;
136. New York Commercial Advertiser, Jan. 17, 18, 21, Feb. 10, 1831.
137. Delaware and Hudson Canal Company, Annual Report. . . for the Year 1831, 5-6;
138. New York Commercial Advertiser, Jan. 25, Feb. 10, 1831;
139. New York Evening Post, Jan. 27, 1831;
140. John Wurts to Charles Wurts, Feb. 5, 1831, Wurts Family Papers (Historical Society of Pennsylvania);
141. Maurice Wurts to Charles Wurts, Feb. 10, 1831, ibid.
142. New York Commercial Advertiser, Jan. 3, Feb. 10, 1831;
143. New York Evening Post, Feb. 10, 1831;
144. Maurice Wurts to Charles Wurts, Feb. 12, 1831, Wurts Family Papers.
145. Maurice Wurts to Charles Wurts, Feb. 12, 1831, Wurts Family Papers; Union Benevolent Association, First Annual Report of the Executive Board of the Union Benevolent Association, 7;
146. Union Benevolent Association, Seventh Annual Report of the Union Benevolent Association, 4;
147. Union Benevolent Association, Eighteenth Annual Report of the Executive Board and of the Ladies' Board of Managers of the Union Benevolent Association, 5-6.
148. George G. Foster, New York by Gas-Light and Other Urban Sketches, ed. Stuart M. Blumin (Berkeley, 1990), 128-30.
149. Some recent works in business history offer ways to assess the impact of consumer choices on production and supply, but they generally deal with the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. See, for example, Philip Scranton, Endless Novelty: Specialty Production and American Industrialization, 1865-1925 (Princeton, 1997);
150. Regina Lee Blaszczyk, Imagining Consumers: Design and Innovation from Wedgwood to Corning (Baltimore, 2000);
151. and Marina Moskowitz, Standard of Living: The Measure of Middle Class in Modern America (Baltimore, 2004).
152. For recent trends in the history of consumption and that field's coming of age, see Susan Strasser, "Making Consumption Conspicuous: Transgressive Topics Go Mainstream," Technology and Culture, 43 (Oct. 2002), 755-70.
153. On the cultural context of consumption, see Colin Campbell, "Consuming Goods and the Good of Consuming," in Consumer Society in American History: A Reader, ed. Lawrence B. Glickman (Ithaca, 1999), 19-32;
154. Jean-Christophe Agnew, "Coming Up for Air: Consumer Culture in Historical Perspective," in Consumption and the World of Goods, ed. Brewer and Porter, 19-39;
155. and Woodruff D. Smith, Consumption and the Making of Respectability 1600-1800 (New York, 2002).
156. New York Evening Post, Dec. 20, 1831. Kathleen McCarthy argues that many market-based philanthropy programs represented a simultaneous rejection of bourgeois notions of respectability and philanthropists' willingness to invest in programs that benefited them economically.
157. See McCarthy, American Creed 91-92.
158. Allan Nevins, ed., The Diary of Philip Hone, 1828-1851, vol. I (New York, 1927), 53;
159. Mintz, Sweetness and Power, 164.
160. On changes in fuel technology in the nineteenth century, see Sam H. Schurr and Bruce C. Netschert, Energy in the American Economy 1850-1975 (Baltimore, 1960), 31-74;
161. Martin Melosi, "Energy Transitions in the Nineteenth-Century Economy," in Energy and Transport: Historical Perspectives on Policy Issues, ed. George H. Daniels and Mark H. Rose (Beverly Hills, 1982), 55-69;
162. Dolores Greenberg, "Reassessing the Power Patterns of the Industrial Revolution: An Anglo-American Comparison," American Historical Review, 87 (Dec 1982), 1237-61;
163. and Dolores Greenberg, "Energy, Power, and Perceptions of Social Change in the Early Nineteenth Century," ibid., 95 (June 1990), 693-714;
164. and David E. Nye, Consuming Power: A Social History of American Energies (Cambridge, Mass., 1998), 53-100.