Strong support for weak performance: Donor competition in Madagascar

African Affairs

Volumn 107, Issue 428, 2008, Pages 405-431

  Horning, Nadia Rabesahala ^a  

^a MIDDLEBURY COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AID DEPENDENCY; AID FLOW; AID POLICY; INTERNATIONAL AID; POLITICS;

INDIAN OCEAN; INDIAN OCEAN ISLANDS; MADAGASCAR;

EID: 46149095504     PISSN: 00019909     EISSN: 14682621     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/afraf/adn036     Document Type: Article

References (105)

1. This is consistent with Krasner's view that '[w]hen a develoning country accepts foreign assistance ... it does not ... usually challenLe the prerogative of donor countries to base aid allocations on self-determined principles or interests'. See Stephen D. Krasner, Structural Conflict: The third world against global liberalism (University of California Press, London and Berkeley. CA, 1985), p. 16.
2. This analysis is informed by field research in Madagascar between 1999 and 2005. During that time three separate research projects were carried out. Two of the projects were academic (Masters thesis and PhD dissertation) and the other was conducted for an international develooment firm on behalf of USAID. For each study informants included members of village communities from different regions of the island, public servants and public officials from all administrative levels, development and conservation professionals (national and foreign), and employees of logging and mining companies - to name but the principal ones.
3. Paul Collier, 'Aid "dependency": A critique', Journal of African Economies 8, 4 (1999), pp. 528-45.
4. Carol Lancaster, Aid to Africa: So much to do, so little done (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, 1999).
5. See also George B. N. Ayittey, Africa Unchained: The blueprint for Africa's future (Palgrave McMillan, New York, NY, 2005), p. 157.
6. See Claude Ake, 'The legitimacy crisis of the state' in David Kennett and Tukumbi Lumumba-Kasonao (eds). Structural Adiustment and the Crisis in Africa (The Edwin Mellen Press, Lewiston, NY, 1992), pp. 32-3.
7. See also Christopher Clapham, Africa and the International System: The Politics of state survival (Cambridge Universitv Press, Cambridge, 1996), p. 4.
8. Jean-Francois Bayart, 'Africa in the world: A history of extraversion', African Affairs 99, 395 (2000), pp. 217-67.
9. See Christopher Clapham, 'Discerning the new Africa', International Affairs 74, 2 (1998), p. 266.
10. See also Nicolas van de Walle, African Economies and the Politics of Permanent Crisis 1979-1999 (Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. 2001). p. 189.
11. See William Reno, Warlord Politics and African States (Lynne Rienner, London and Boulder, CO, 1999), p. 4.
12. Pierre Englebert, State Legitimacy and Development in Africa (Lynne Rienner, London and Boulder, CO, 2000).
13. C. Gibson, K. Andersson, E. Ostrom, and S. Shivakumar, The Samaritan's Dilemma: The political economy of development aid (Oxford University Press, Oxford and New York, NY, 2005).
14. Ibid., pp. 38-9.
15. See for instance, Graham Hancock, Lords of Poverty: The Power, prestige, and corruption in the international aid business (Atlantic Monthly Press, New York, NY, 1989)
16. and Ayittey, Africa Unchained, pp. 155-71.
17. See Graham Harrison, The World Bank and Africa: The construction of governance states (Routledge, London and New York, NY, 2004), p. 16, emphasis added.
18. Peter Boone, 'Politics and the effectiveness of foreign aid' (National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper 5308, October 1995), p. 5,
19. cited in Ayittey, Africa Unchained, p. 156.
20. Interview, Alain Pierre Randrianjohary, World Bank, Antananarivo, Madagagascar, 9 July 2005.
21. Although some question the accuracy of the term 'environmental sector', the author uses it to refer to the process in which environmental protection has attracted donor funds and generated economic activities for foreign contractors and Malagasy professionals alike.
22. Rosaleen Duffy, 'Non-governmental organisations and governance states: the impact of transnational environmental management networks in Madagascar', Environmental Politics 15, 5 (2006), pp. 731-49.
23. Ibid. p. 743, emohasis added.
24. Examples include Law 96-025, which stipulates that 'local communities' should be included in resource management plans.
25. Catherine Corson, 'The politics of US foreign aid for the environment: A case study of the US Agency for International Development's role in Madagascar's environmental agenda' (paper presented at the symposium on 'Society, natural resources and development in Madagascar'. Universitv of East Analia, 30 March 2007).
26. In this context institutions should be distinguished from organizations per se, and regarded comprehensively as 'complexes of norms and behaviours that persist over time by serving collectively valued purposes'. See Norman T. Uphoff, Local Institutional Development: An analytical sourcebook with cases (Kumarian Press, West Hartford, CT, 1986), p. 9.
27. There are thus some institutions that are organizations (structures of recognized and accepted roles) and some that are not. See Elinor Ostrom, Governing the Commons: The evolution of institutions for collective action (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990), p. 51.
28. More recently a Comité Conjoint was also set up to ensure communication among key actors in the donor and NGO communities, all of whom come to the environmental table with compatible or competing agendas.
29. See Duffy, 'Non-governmental organisations and governance states', p. 732.
30. Interviews, Dr Helen Crowley, Madagascar Programme, Wildlife Conservation Society, Antananarivo. Madagascar. 7 July 2005;
31. Olivier Langrand, Conservation International, Washington, DC, 22 February 2006 (by telephone);
32. Serge Rajaobelina, FANAMBY, Antananarivo, Madagascar, 6 July 2005.
33. Conservation International. 'Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands'. (21 April 2008).
34. Interview, Lisa Gaylord, USAID, Antananarivo, Madagascar, 6 July 2005.
35. Interview. Guy Razafindralambo. Office National de l'Environnement. Antananarivo, Madagascar. 29 June 2005.
36. See also Rajaona Andriamananjara, 'Economic development cycles in Madaaascar. 1950-1990' (Research paper, Center for Economic Research on Africa, Montclair State College, 1990), especially pp. 12-13.
37. Peluso refers to this approach as 'scientific' forestry in the case of Java. See Nancy Peluso, Rich Forests, Poor People: Resource control and resistance in Java (University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles. CA. 1992), pp. 44-50.
38. See Gérard Prunier, The Rwanda Crisis: History of a genocide (Columbia University Press, New York, NY. 1995). pp. 105-106;
39. see also Asteris C. Huliaras, 'The "Anglosaxon conspiracy": French perceptions of the Great Lakes crisis'. Journal of Modern African Studies 36, 4 (1998), pp. 593-609.
40. Janice Harper, Endangered Species: Health, illness, and death among Madagascar's people of the forest (Carolina Academic Press, Durham, NC, 2002).
41. This French term is used to refer to logging companies of all sizes.
42. See Christian A. Kull, 'The evolution of conservation efforts in Madagascar', International Environmental Affairs 8, 1 (1996), pp. 50-86.
43. See also Duffy, 'Non-governmental organisations and governance states'.
44. Kull, 'The evolution of conservation efforts', pp. 50-1.
45. Megadiverse countries are the twelve countries that together host 70 percent of the planet's biodiversity.
46. The other five components were: (1) improving the living conditions of the population by improving the protection and management of natural resources; (2) promoting environmental education, training, and communication, (3) developing mapping and remote sensing tools; (4) developing environmental research on territorial, coastal and marine ecosystems, and (5) establishing mechanisms for managing and monitoring the environment. See Global Environment Facility, 'Madagascar Second Environment Program' (project document, November 19960, pp. 3-4.
47. Fondation Tany Meva is Madagascar's first environmental foundation. See .
48. World Bank, 'Implementation completion report: Republic of Madagascar Environmental Program (Cr. 2125 MAG)' (15 January 1998).
49. Global Environment Facility, 'Madagascar Second Environment Program'.
50. UN 2002, cited in Lindemann, 'Madagascar case study: Analysis of national strategies for sustainable development' (unedited working paper) available at (2004), p. 9.
51. Switzerland, France, USA, Germany, UNDP for EP 1 (unspecified for EP 2 and 3).
52. This was a projected figure before 2005. By 2005 the figure was up to US$170 million, as reflected in Figure 2.
53. This total figure is lower than the official one of US$100 million.
54. Interview. Jean Roger Rakotoarijaona, Office National de l'Environnement (ONE), Antananarivo, Madagascar. 28 June 2005.
55. Interview, Serge Rajaobelina, FANAMBY, Antananarivo, Madagascar, 6 July 2005.
56. See Jean-Christophe Carret and Denis Loyer, 'Comment financer durablement les aires protégées à Madagascar? Rapport de l'analyse économique' (unpublished paper) available at (n.d.).
57. for biodiversity conservation, S4 for eco-tourism, and $3 for watershed conservation.
58. Carret and Loyer, 'Comment financer durablement', p. 32.
59. Interview, Léon Rajaobelina, Madagascar Programme, Conservation International, Antananarivo, Madagascar, 10 July 2005.
60. The excitement around these findings is rather astonishing, considering, that the study was conducted in just 10 rather than all of Madagascar's 41 PAs.
61. This is to name just the main ones. There are dozens more institutions involved in NEAP, some smaller than others.
62. Interview, Valérie Rabesahala, Wildlife Conservation Society, Antananarivo, Madagascar, 27 June 2005.
63. Interview, Dr Koto Bernard, World Wildlife Fund, Toliara, Madagascar, 5 August 1999.
64. Interview, Serge Rajaobelina.
65. Shivakumar argues that this happens when the state functions as an agent of development. See S. Shivakumar, The Constitution of Development: Crafting capabilities for self-governance (Palarave McMillan, New York, NY, 2005), pp. 53-62.
66. Science Blog/Conservation International, 'Madagascar to triple areas under protection', (21 April 2008).
67. Interview, Jean-Roger Rakotoarijaona.
68. 'Madagascar, naturally!'
69. There was nothing new about this concent, since Madagascar's 1990 Environmental Charter specifically states that environmental protection is a means to achieving development goals. The above historical background also helps to suggest that Ravalomana's 'new' vision amounts to little more than historv repeating itself.
70. Jean-Patrick Leduc (ed.), 'Proceedings of the international conference: biodiversity science and governance' (Paris 24-28 January 2005). p. 42.
71. The enclude rates of deforestation; critical habitats conservation/ degradation: Quality of biodiversity; rural household benefiting from conservation-related projects: Tourism revenues; and changes in attitudes with regard to the environment. See Stefan Lindemann. 'Madagascar case study: Analysis of national strategies for sustainable development' (unedited working paper) available at (2004), pp. 11-12.
72. See Gradv Harper, Marc K. Steininger, Compton J. Tucker, Daniel Juhn, and Frank Hawkins, 'Fifty years of deforestation and forest fragmentation in Madagascar' (unpublished paper, n.d.)
73. These periods correspond roughly with the first three political economic periods identified in the first section of this article. The first is the immediate post-colonial oeriod (1960-71); the second the time of scientific socialism (1972-81); the third the period of liberal reforms and structural adiustment (1982-2001).
74. Jörg Ganzhorn, Porter P. Lowry II, George Schatz, and Simone Sommer, 'The biodiversity of Madagascar: One of the world's hottest hotspots on its way out'. Oryx 35, 4 (2001), p. 347.
75. Mireille Razafindrakoto, Laetitia Razafimamonjy. Désiré Razafindrazaka, and François Roubaud, 'Perception de la situation économique et des performances du gouvernement: Premiers résultats de l'enquête "Afrobarometer 2005" à Madagascar' (Afrobarometer Briefing Paper No. 21), available at (October 2005).
76. Raiaona Andriamananjara, 'Economic development cycles in Madagascar. 1950-1990' (Research paper, Center for Economic Research on Africa, Montclair State College, 1990), especially pp. 12-13.
77. Peter T. Schraeder, African Politics and Society: A mosaic in transformation (Thomson Wadsworth, Belmont, CA, 2004), p. 133.
78. See Merwyn Brown, A History of Madagascar (Damien Tunnacliffe, London, 1995), p. 334.
79. Shuttleworth reports a sharp decline in per capita rice availabilitv beginning in 1981, with a downward trend until 1985. See Graham Shuttleworth, 'Policies in transition: Lessons from Madagascar', World Development 17, 3 (1989), pp. 397-408.
80. S. Rajcoomar, 'Madagascar: Crafting comprehensive reforms'. Finance and Development 28, 3 (September 1991), pp. 46-8.
81. In the six months that followed the December 2001 election, a political battle pitted Ratsiraka against Ravalomanana supporters. Each camp claimed to have won the election. During this period the political climate was extremely tense, important infrastructure was destroyed, and the economv all but collapsed. For a day-to-day account of this unsettled period, see Dan Ymal, L'éveil d'un Peuple (MAPOM, Antananarivo, 2002).
82. Republic of Madagascar. 'Croissance économique à Madagascar: tendance et situation' (Policy brief, Institut National de la Statistique, November 2003). p. 4.
83. Lancaster refers to such tactics as 'switching'. See Lancaster, Aid to Africa, p. 33.
84. T. M. Callaalry, 'Debt and structural adjustment in Africa: Realities and possibilities' Issue: A Journal of Opinion 16, 2 (1988), p. 11.
85. Ibid., p. 14.
86. For reasons for such a decrease in aid flows in the 1990s. see Carol Lancaster and Samuel Wangwe. 'Managing a smooth transition from aid dependence' (Policy Essay No. 28, Overseas Develooment Council and African Economic Research Consortium, 2000), pp. 26-8.
87. Solofo Randrianja, '"Be not afraid, only believe": Madagascar 2002', African Affairs 102, 407 (2003), p. 327.
88. 'Effacement des dettes', Midi Madagascar, 28 June 2005.
89. 'New Bush strategy on aid faces test in Madagascar', Wall Street Journal, 5 April 2005, p. 1A.
90. Republic of Madagascar, 'Madagascar Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper' (20-November 2000), available at .
91. Unlike his predecessors Ravalomanana was not educated in the French tradition. In fact, his French is so poor that he prefers addressing foreign audiences in English. His behaviour was consequently labelled anti-French.
92. France-Madagascar 2005... aide an développement et francophonie' http://www.madanight.com/viewarticle_672.htm (accessed 5 January 2006).
93. See David Leonard and Scott Strauss. Africa's Stalled Development: International causes and cures (Lynne Rienner, London and Boulder, CO. 2003), p. 11;
94. Nicolas van de Walle, African Economies, p. 220;
95. P. Chabal and J. P. Daloz, Africa Works: Disorder as political instrument (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1996), pp. 110-19;
96. and William Reno, Warlord Politics and African States (Lynne Rienner, London and Boulder, CO, 1999), pp. 20-4.
97. Interviews, Dr Helen Crowley. Olivier Lanarand.
98. An USAID-funded study found that the statistics on deforestation in protected areas funded by this agency, used to secure funding from the US Congress, were grossly exaggerated. See Ned Horning, 'Review of forest cover change methods by ANGAP and proposed changes from 1993/ 94-1997/98 in target zones around protected areas' (unpublished paper, Antananarivo, 1999).
99. One expatriate was particularly controversial among Malagasy professionals who expressed their desire not to see the individual return. Despite such a request, the individual returned to direct a donor-funded project.
100. Interviews, Masahiro Otsuka, DEF, Antananarivo, 7 July 2005; and Lantosoa Patricia Ramarojaona, Administrator, UNDP, Antananarivo, 11 July 2005.
101. Interview, an international organization employee, Antananarivo, July 2005.
102. Interview, Dr Helen Crowley.
103. Interview, an international omanization emoloyee, Antananarivo, July 2005.
104. DuffY uses the example of illicit sapphire mining in southern Madagascar. See Rosaleen Duffy, 'Global environmental governance and the challenge of shadow states: The impact of illicit sapphire miniruz, in Madmzascar', Development and Change 36, 5 (2005), p. 832.
105. C. Gibson, K. Andersson, E. Ostrom, and S. Shivakumar, The Samaritan's Dilemma.