Violence against women: State responsibilities in international human rights law to address harmful 'masculinities'

Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights

Volumn 26, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 173-197

  Anderson, Kirsten ^a,b,c  

^a LLB   (Australia)

^b Public and International Law   (Australia)

^c The Children's Legal Centre   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 45949095609     PISSN: 01693441     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/016934410802600202     Document Type: Article

References (181)

1. Kaufman, M., Cracking the Armour: Power, Pain and the Lives of Men, Penguin, Toronto, 2002, p. 118.
2. United Nations Secretary-General, 'Message on the International Day for the Elimination of Violence Against Women', available at: www.un.org/ events/women/violence/2007/sg.shtml (last accessed 25 November 2007).
3. See generally Watts, Charlotte and Zimmerman, Cathy, 'Violence Against Women: Global Scope and Magnitude', The Lancet, Vol. 359, No. 9313, 2002, pp. 1232-1237
4. Fitzpatrick, Joan, 'The Use of International Human Rights Norms to Combat Violence Against Women', in: Cook, Rebecca (ed.), Human Rights of Women: National and International Perspectives, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1994, pp. 532-572; and
5. Coomaraswamy, Radhika and Kois, Lisa M., 'Violence Against Women', in: Askin, Kelly D. and Koenig, Dorean M. (eds), Women and International Human Rights Law: Volume 1, Transnational Publishers, Ardsley, 1999, pp. 139-177.
6. See also Thompson, Marilyn, 'Boys Will Be Boys: Addressing the Social Construction of Gender', in: Cleaver, Frances (ed.), Masculinities Matter! Men, Gender and Development, Zed Books, London, 2002, pp. 166-185, at p. 171.
7. In Society for International Development, Violence Against Women and the Culture of Masculinity, Society for International Development, Rome, 2004, p. 2.
8. UNIFEM, Masculinity and Gender-Based Violence, 2002, p. 2, available at: http://unifem-eseasia.org/resources/factsheets/ UNIFEMSheet5.pdf (last accessed 5 May 2008).
9. Idem; UNICEF, Domestic Violence Against Women and Girls: Innocenti Digest No. 6, Innocenti Research Centre, Florence, 2000, p.9; and
10. Amnesty International, It's In Our Hands: Stop Violence Against Women, Amnesty International Publications, London, 2004, pp. 8-9.
11. Amnesty International, op.cit. (note 6), at p. 9.
12. Bunch, Charlotte, 'Women's Rights as Human Rights: Toward a Re-Vision of Human Rights', Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 12, No. 4, 1990, pp. 486-498, at p. 489.
13. Charlesworth, Hilary apd Chinkin, Christine, 'Violence Against Women: A Global Issue', in: Stubbs, Julie (ed.), Women, Male Violence and the Law, Federation Press, Sydney, 1994, pp. 13-33, at p. 13.
14. Ertürk, Yarkin, 'Considering the Role of Men in Gender Agenda Setting: Conceptual and Policy Issues', Feminist Review, No. 78, 2004, pp. 3-21, at p. 8.
15. United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women, 'The Role of Men and Boys in Achieving Gender Equality: Report of the Expert Group Meeting', 2004, para. 4, available at: www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/egm/ men-boys2003/reports/Finalreport.pdf (last accessed 5 may 2008).
16. Ertürk, loc.cit. (note 10), at p. 8.
17. The White Ribbon Campaign was established in Canada in 1991 and aims to involve men in eliminating violence against women; see Kaufman, Michael, 'The White Ribbon Campaign: Involving Men and Boys in Ending Global Violence Against Women', in: Pease, Bob and Pringle, Keith, A Man's World? Changing Men's Practices in a Globalised World, Zed Books, Londen, 2001, pp. 38-51. A recent review has identified the existence of some 60 similar organisations in 30 countries: Haywood, Ruth Finney, 'Needed: A Culture of Masculinity for the Fulfillment of Human Rights', Development, Vol. 44, No. 3, 2001, pp. 48-53, at p. 49.
18. See generally Connell, R.W, 'The Role of Men and Boys in Achieving Gender Equality', UN Doc. EGM/Men-Boys-GE/2003/WP.1, 2003, available at: www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/egm/menboys2003/Connell-bp.pdf (last accessed 5 May 2008).
19. See United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women, loc.cit. (note 11).
20. Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women, UN GAOR, 3d Comm., 48th Sess., Res. 48/104, UN Doc. A/48/629, 23 February 1994.
21. Ibidem, in preamble.
22. Connel, R.W, Masculinities, Allen and Unwin, Sydney, 2005, p. 67.
23. Pease, Bob and Pringle, Keith, 'Introduction: Studying Men's practices and Gender Relations in a Global Context', in: Pease and Pringle, op.cit. (note 13), pp. 1-17, at p. 22.
24. Beyon, John, Masculinities and Culture, Open University, Buckingham/Philadelphia, 2002, p. 54.
25. Kaufman, op.cit. (note 1), at p. 26.
26. Connell, op.cit. (note 18), at p. 68.
27. West, Candace and Zimmerman, Don, 'Doing Gender', Gender and Society, Vol. 1, No. 2, 1987, pp. 125-151, at p. 147.
28. Connell, op.cit. (note 18), at p. 77.
29. Idem.
30. Kimmel, Michael, 'Masculinity as Homophobia: Fear, Shame and Silence in the Construction of Gender Identity', in: Brod, Harry and Kaufman, Michael (eds), Theorising Masculinities, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, 1994, pp. 119-141.
31. Connell, op.cit. (note 18), at p. 79.
32. Ertürk, loc.cit. (note 10), at p. 11.
33. Hooper, Charlotte,'Masculinist Practices and Gender Politics:The Operation of Multiple Masculinities in International Relations', in: Zalewski, Marysia and Parpart, Jane (eds), The 'Man' Question in International Relations, Westview Press, Boulder/Oxford, 1998, pp. 28-53, at pp. 28 and 38.
34. Kaufman, op.cit. (note 1), at p. 26.
35. Michael Kimmel, in: Roy, Rahul, 'The Eyes Are Silent...The Heart Desires to Speak: Exploring Masculinities in South Asia', Development, Vol. 44, No. 3, 2001, pp. 15-20, at p. 20.
36. Kaufman, op.cit. (note 1), at p. 28.
37. Kaufman, Michael, 'Men, Feminism, and Men's Contradictory Experiences of Power', in: Kuypers, Joseph (ed.), Men and Power, Fernwood Publishing, Halifax, 1999, pp. 77-106, at p. 82.
38. See Watts and Zimmerman, loc.cit. (note 3); and
39. Charlesworth and Chinkin, loc.cit. (note 9), at p. 13.
40. Charlesworth, Hilary and Chinkin. Christine, The Boundaries of International Law: A Feminist Analysis, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 2000, p. 13.
41. See UNICEF, op.cit. (note 6).
42. Websdale, Neil and Chesney-Lind, Meda, 'Doing Violence to Women: Research Synthesis on the victimisation of Women', in: Bowker, Lee H. (ed.), Masculinities and Violence, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks/London, 1998, p. 55.
43. Charlesworth and Chinkin, loc.cit. (note 9), at p. 13; and
44. Watts and Zimmerman, loc.cit. (note 3), at p. 1232.
45. In Charlesworth and Chinkin, loc.cit. (note 9), at p. 14.
46. Amnesty International, op.cit. (note 6), at p. 6.
47. Bunch, loc.cit. (note 8), at p. 490, citing Heise.
48. Charlesworth and Chinkin, loc.cit. (note 9), at p. 13.
49. Connell, op.cit. (note 18) at pp. 83-84.
50. Websdale and Chesney-Lind, loc.cit. (note 37), at pp. 57-58.
51. Campbell, Jacquelyn C., 'Sanctions and Sanctuary: Wife Battering Within Cultural Contexts', in: Counts, Dorothy Ayers, Brown, Judith K. and Campbell, Jacquelyn (eds), To Have and To Hit: Cultural Perspectives on Wife Beating, University of Illinois Press, University of Illinois, 1999, pp. 261-285, at p. 272.
52. Pease and Pringle, loc.cit. (note 19), at p. 35.
53. Thompson, loc.cit. (note 3), at p. 171.
54. De Keijzer, Benno, 'Masculinities: Resistance and Change', in: Oxfam GB, Gender Equality and Men: Learning from Practice, Oxfam Publishing, Oxford, 2004, pp. 28-49, at p. 30.
55. Radhika Coomaraswamy, Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, Its Causes and Consequences, 'Cultural Practices in the Family that are Violent Towards Women', UN Doc. E/CN.4/2002/83, 31 January 2002.
56. Ibidem, at para. 105.
57. Whitehead, Stephen M., Men and Masculinities, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, 2002, p. 37.
58. Connell, op.cit. (note 18), at p. 15.
59. Ibidem, at p. 28.
60. Kaufman, Michael, 'Building a Movement of Men Working to End Violence Against Women', Development, Vol. 44, No. 3, 2001, pp. 9-14, at p. 11.
61. Alméras, Diane, 'Violence Against Women: Men and the Social Imaginary', Development, Vol. 44, No. 3, 2001, pp. 54-58, at p. 55.
62. Kaufman, Michael, 'The AIM Framework: Addressing and Involving Men and Boys to Promote Gender Equality and End Gender Discrimination and Violence', 2003, available at: www.michaelkaufman.com (last accessed 5 may 2008).
63. Kaufman, loc.cit. (note 54), at p. 11.
64. Cleaver, Frances, 'Men and Masculinities: New directions in Gender and Development', in: Cleaver, Frances (ed.), Masculinities Matter! Men, Gender and Development, Zed Books, London/New York, 2002, pp. 1-24, at p. 10.
65. Connell, loc.cit. (note 14), at p. 12: health problems documented include 'premature death from accident, homicide and suicide (...) (and) higher levels of drug abuse'.
66. See Rathgeber, Eva M., 'Gender and Development in Action', in: Marchand, Marianne H. and Parpart, Jane L. (eds), Feminism/Postmodernism/ Development, Routledge, London/New York, 1995, p. 204.
67. Pease and Pringle, loc.cit. (note 19), at p. 7.
68. Cleaver, loc.cit. (note 58), at p. 1.
69. See Oxfam GB, op.cit. (note 48).
70. In 1997, UNESCO held an Expert Group Meeting on 'Male Roles and Masculinities in the Perspective of a Culture of Peace'; see Flood, Michael, Men's Collective Anti-Violence Activism and the Struggle for Gender Justice', Development, Vol. 44, No. 3, 2001, pp. 42-47, at p. 44.
71. See Haywood, loc.cit. (note 13).
72. For a list of relevant statements contained in such documents, see Amnesty International, Making Rights a Reality: The Duty of States to Address Violence Against Women, 2004, available at: www.amnesty.org/ en/library/asset/ACT77/049/2004/en/dom-ACT770492004en.pdf (last accessed 5 May 2008).
73. United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women, loc.cit. (note 11).
74. Ibidem, at para. 87.
75. Ibidem, at para. 90.
76. Etienne, Margareth, 'Addressing Gender-Based Violence in an International Context', Harvard Women's Law Journal, Vol. 18, 1995, pp. 139-160, at p. 146.
77. See e.g. UNDP, Human Development Report 2000, Oxford University Press, New York, 2000; and
78. UN Secretary General, Kofi Anan, 'Reform at the United Nations', available at: www.un.org/reform (last accessed 5 May 2008).
79. Charlesworth and Chinkin, loc.cit. (note 9), at p. 14.
80. Geneva Convention IV for the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, 75 United Nations Treaty Series 287 (entered into force 12 August 1949) (herein referred to as 'Geneva Convention IV').
81. Protocol Additional to Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflict, 1125 United Nations Treaty Series 3 (entered into force 7 December 1978) (herein referred to as 'Additional Protocol I').
82. Article 76(1). Articles 76(2) and (3) give special protections for pregnant women.
83. Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR) 1948, GA Res. 217A(III), G.A.O.R, 3rd Sess., Part I.
84. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), opened for signature 16 December 1966, 999 United Nations Treaty Series 171 (entered into force 23 March 1976).
85. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), opened for signature 16 December 1966, 993 United Nations Treaty Series 3 (entered into force 3 January 1976).
86. See Articles 2 and 3 in both the ICCPR and the ICESCR.
87. Article 6 ICCPR; and
88. Article 3 UDHR.
89. Article 12(1) ICESCR.
90. Article 9(1) ICCPR; and
91. Article 3 UDHR.
92. Article 10(1) ICESCR. See also Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights, 'General Comment No. 16, Article 3: The Equal Right of Men and Women to the Enjoyment of all Economic, Social and Cultural Rights', UN Doc. E/C.12/2005/3, 11 August 2005, para. 27.
93. Article 7 ICCPR; and
94. Article 5 UDHR.
95. Article 8 ICCPR; and
96. Article 4 UDHR.
97. See Velasquez Rodriguez vs Honduras, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 1988, Series C, No. 4, para. 174; and
98. Charlesworth and Chinkin, loc.cit. (note 9), at p. 17.
99. See Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 'General Comment No. 16: The Equal Right of Men and Women to the Enjoyment of all Economic, Social and Cultural Rights', UN Doc. E/C.12/2005/4, 11 August 2005, para. 27; and
100. Human Rights Committee, 'General Comment No. 28: Equality of Rights Between Men and Women', UN Doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.10, 29 March 2000, para. 11.
101. Ibidem, para. 27.
102. Human Rights Committee, loc.cit. (note 87), paras 8, 11 and 22.
103. Charlesworth and Chinkin, loc.cit. (note 9), at p. 19; and
104. Ertürk, loc.cit. (note 10), at pp. 7-8.
105. Otto, Dianne, 'Holding Up Half the Sky, But For Whose Benefit?: A Critical Analysis of the Fourth World Conference on Women', Australian Feminist Law Journal, Vol. 6, 1996, pp. 7-28, at p. 28.
106. Bunch, loc.cit. (note 8), at p. 488.
107. Otto, loc.cit. (note 91), at p. 12.
108. MacKinnon, Catherine A., Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and Law, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1987, pp. 42-43.
109. Otto, Dianne, 'A Post-Beijing Reflection on the Limitations and Potential of Human Rights Discourse for Women', in: Askin, Kelly D. and Koenig, Dorean M., Women and International Human Rights Law: Volume 1, Transnational, Ardsley, 1999, pp. 115-135, at pp. 116-119.
110. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), opened for signature 1 March 1980, 1249 United Nations Treaty Series (entered into force 3 September 1981).
111. See UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, 'General Recommendation 19: Violence Against Women', UN Doc. CEDAW/C/ 1992/L.1/Add.15, 29 January 1992.
112. Article 6 CEDAW.
113. Article 1 CEDAW.
114. Herein referred to as 'The Committee'.
115. See UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, loc.cit. (note 97), at para. 1.
116. Ibidem, at para. 7.
117. Ibidem, at para. 6. This includes 'acts that inflict physical, mental or sexual harm of suffering, threats of such acts, coercion and other deprivations of liberty'.
118. Ibidem, at para. 9.
119. Charlesworth and Chinkin, loc.cit. (note 9), at p. 21.
120. UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, loc.cit. (note 97), at para. 7.
121. Article 2(f) CEDAW.
122. Article 10(c) CEDAW.
123. UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, loc.cit. (note 97), at para. 11.
124. Ibidem, at para. 23.
125. Ibidem, at para. 24(e).
126. Ibidem, at para. 24(f).
127. Ibidem, at para 24(t)(ii).
128. See UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, 'Concluding
129. Observations: Nicaragua', UN Doc. A/48/38, 26 January 1993, para. 372-373
130. idem, 'Concluding
131. Observations: France', UN Doc. A/48/38, 27 January 1993, paras 334-336
132. idem, 'Concluding
133. Observations: Yemen', UN Doc. A/48/38, 2 February 1993, paras 220-221
134. idem, 'Concluding
135. Observations: Barbados', UN Doc. A/49/38, 4 February 1994, paras 421-422
136. idem, 'Concluding
137. Observations: Ecuador', UN Doc. A/49/38. 4 February 1994, para. 524; and
138. idem, 'Concluding
139. Observations: Guatemala', UN Doc. A/49/38, 4 February 1994, paras 49-50.
140. UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, 'Concluding Observations: Ecuador', loc.cit. (note 114).
141. Ibidem, at para. 524.
142. UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, 'Concluding Observations: Turkey', UN Doc. A/52/38/Rev.1, 31 January 1997.
143. Ibidem, at para. 183.
144. UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, 'Concluding Observations: Canada', UN Doc. A/52/38/Rev.1, 31 January 1997, para. 335.
145. UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, 'Concluding Observations: Sweden', UN Doc. A/56/38, 20 July 2001.
146. Ibidem, at para. 322.
147. Ibidem, at para. 333.
148. UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, 'Concluding Observations: Iceland', UN Doc. A/51/38, 2 February 1996.
149. Ibidem, at para. 77.
150. See Connell, op.cit. (note 18), at p. 20.
151. Ibidem, at p. 22.
152. Whitehead, op.cit. (note 51), at p. 22.
153. Connell, op.cit. (note 18), at p. 23.
154. Idem.
155. Whitehead, op.cit. (note 51), at p. 22.
156. Connell, op.cit. (note 18), at p. 26.
157. Ibidem, at p. 25 (emphasis added).
158. Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women, UN GAOR, 3d Comm., 48th Sess., Res. 48/104, UN Doc. A/48/629, 23 Feburary 1994 (herein referred to as 'The Declaration').
159. Charlesworth and Chinkin, loc.cit. (note 9), at p. 22.
160. Idem.
161. Thomas, Cheryl, 'Domestic Violence', in: Askin, Kelly D. and Koenig, Dorean M., Women and International Human Rights Law: Volume 1, Transnational, Ardsley, 1999, pp. 219-254, at p. 249.
162. Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, section II B, para. 38, UN Doc. A/Conf.157/24, 12 July 1993.
163. Thomas, loc.cit. (note 136), at p. 249.
164. Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, supra note 137, at preamble.
165. Charlesworth, Hillary, 'The Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Violence Against Women', American Society of International Law Newsletter, June 1994, pp. 1-3, at p. 2.
166. See Otto, Dianne, 'Violence Against Women - Something Other Than a Violation of Human Rights?', Australian Feminist Law Journal, Vol. 1, 1993, pp. 159-162.
167. Article 1 The Declaration.
168. Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, Fourth World Conference on Women, 15 September 1995, UN Doc. A/Conf.177/20, 15 September 1995, Add.1.
169. Ibidem, paras 113, 117 and 118.
170. Ibidem, at para. 119.
171. Ibidem, at para. 120.
172. Ibidem, at para. 124(k).
173. Ibidem, at para. 125(e).
174. Ibidem, at para. 125(j).
175. Ibidem, at para. 125(g).
176. Charlesworth and Chinkin, loc.cit. (note 9), at p. 23.
177. Connell, op.cit. (note 18), at p. xx (20).
178. Ibidem, at p. 29.
179. Charlesworth, loc.cit. (note 140), at p. 2.
180. Kapur, Ratna, 'The Tragedy of Victimisation Rhetoric: Resurrecting the "Native" Subject in International/Post-Colonial Feminist Legal Politics', Harvard Human Rights Journal, Vol. 15, Spring 2005, pp. 1-38, at p. 34.
181. For a discussion on the construction of the female 'victim' in international human rights law (in particular in relation to violence against women) and the problems and outcomes associated with this victimisation rhetoric, see idem.