Identification and interpretation of developmental neurotoxicity effects. A report from the ILSI Research Foundation/Risk Science Institute expert working group on neurodevelopmental endpoints

Neurotoxicology and Teratology

Volumn 30, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 349-381

  Tyl, Rochelle W ^a   Crofton, Kevin ^b   Moretto, Angelo ^c   Moser, Virginia ^b   Sheets, Larry P ^d   Sobotka, Thomas J ^e  

^a RTI INTERNATIONAL   (United States)

^b ORD ^*  (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF PADOVA   (Italy)

^d BAYER CROPSCIENCE   (United States)

^e CENTER FOR DRUG EVALUATION AND RESEARCH   (United States)

Author keywords

Developmental neurotoxicity testing; DNT; DNT treatment related effects; Interpretation of treatment related effects

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL USE; ARTICLE; DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE; HABITUATION; HUMAN; LEARNING; MEDICAL RESEARCH; MEMORY; MOTOR ACTIVITY; NEUROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGENY; SEX DIFFERENCE; STARTLE REFLEX;

ANIMALS; BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH; DATA INTERPRETATION, STATISTICAL; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; NEUROTOXICITY SYNDROMES; PREGNANCY; PRENATAL EXPOSURE DELAYED EFFECTS; RISK ASSESSMENT;

EID: 45849083909     PISSN: 08920362     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2007.07.008     Document Type: Article

References (132)

1. Abou-Donia M.B. Principles and methods for evaluating neurotoxicity. In: Abou-Donia M.B. (Ed). Neurotoxicology (1992), CRC Press, Boca Raton 509-526
2. Acuff K.D., and Vorhees C. Neurobehavioral teratology. In: Niesink R.J.R.K.L.v.R.J. (Ed). Introduction to Neurobehavioral Toxicology: Food and Environment (1999), CRC Press, Boca Raton 26-69
3. Ali S.F., Chang L.W., and Slikker Jr. W. Biogenic amines as biomarkers for neurotoxicity. Biomed. Environ. Sci. 4 (1991) 207-216
4. Barone Jr. S., Das K.P., Lassiter T.L., and White L.D. Vulnerable processes of nervous system development: a review of markers and methods. Neurotoxicology 21 (2000) 15-36
5. Barreto-Medeiros J.M., Feitoza E.G., Magalhaes K., Cabral-Filho J.E., Manhaes-de-Castro F.M., De-Castro C.M., and Manhaes-de-Castro R. Malnutrition during brain growth spurt alters the effect of fluoxetine on aggressive behavior in adult rats. Nutr. Neurosci. 7 (2004) 49-52
6. Bates H.K., McKee R.H., Bieler G.S., Gardiner T.H., Gill M.W., Strother D.E., and Masten L.W. Developmental neurotoxicity evaluation of orally administered isopropanol in rats. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 22 (1994) 152-158
7. Buelke-Sam J., Kimmel C.A., Adams J., Nelson C.J., Vorhees C.V., Wright D.C., St. Omer V., Korol B.A., Butcher R.E., and Geyer M.A. Organization for economic cooperation and development, collaborative behavioral teratology study: results. Neurobehav. Toxicol. Teratol. 7 (1985) 591-624
8. Cabe P.A. Psychophysical methods for the measurement of somatosensory dysfunction of laboratory animals. Environ. Health Perspect. 44 (1982) 93-100
9. Campbell B.A., Lytle L.D., and Fibiger H.C. Ontogeny of adrenergic arousal and cholinergic inhibitory mechanisms in the rat. Science 166 (1969) 635-637
10. Castoldi A.F., Coccini T., and Manzo L. Biological markers of neurotoxic diseases. Funct. Neurol. 16 (2001) 39-44
11. Cattabeni F., and Abbracchio M.P. Behavioral teratology: an inappropriate term for some uninterpretable effects. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 9 (1988) 13-15
12. Chaudhury D., and Colwell C.S. Circadian modulation of learning and memory in fear-conditioned mice. Behav. Brain Res. 133 (2002) 95-108
13. Christian M.S. Introduction/overview: gender-based differences in pharmacologic and toxicologic responses. Int. J Toxicol. 20 (2001) 145-148
14. Christian M.S., Hoberman A.M., and Lochry E.A. Currently used alternatives to the Chernoff-Kavlock short-term in vivo reproductive toxicity assay. Teratog. Carcinog. Mutagen. 7 (1987) 65-71
15. Christoph G.R., Hansen J.F., and Leung H.W. Subchronic inhalation neurotoxicity studies of ethyl acetate in rats. Neurotoxicology 24 (2003) 861-874
16. Christoph G.R., Malley L.A., and Stadler J.C. Subchronic inhalation exposure to acetone vapor and scheduled controlled operant performance in male rats. Inhal. Toxicol. 15 (2003) 781-798
17. V. Claassen, Neglected factors in pharmacology and neuroscience research, in J.P. Houston (Ed.), Elsever, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1994, 486
18. Clancy B., Darlington R.B., and Finlay B.L. Translating developmental time across mammalian species. Neuroscience 105 (2001) 7-17
19. Claudio L., Kwa W.C., Russell A.L., and Wallinga D. Testing methods for developmental neurotoxicity of environmental chemicals. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 164 (2000) 1-14
20. Clausing P., Mothes H.K., and Opitz B. Preweaning experience as a modifier of prenatal drug effects in rats and mice-a review. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 22 (2000) 113-123
21. Cory-Slechta D.A., Crofton K.M., Foran J.A., Ross J.F., Sheets L.P., Weiss B., and Mileson B. Methods to identify and characterize developmental neurotoxicity for human health risk assessment. I: behavioral effects. Environ. Health. Perspect. 109 Suppl 1 (2001) 79-91
22. Crofton K.M. Reflex modification and the assessment of sensory dysfunction. In: Tilson H.A., and Mitchell C.L. (Eds). Neurotoxicology (1992), Raven Press, New York
23. Crofton K.M., and Sheets L. Sensory dysfunction: assessment using relex modification of the startle response. J. Amer. Coll. Toxicol. 8 (1989) 199-211
24. Crofton K.M., Howard J.L., Moser V.C., Gill M.W., Reiter L.W., Tilson H.A., and MacPhail R.C. Interlaboratory comparison of motor activity experiments: implications for neurotoxicological assessments. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 13 (1991) 599-609
25. Crofton K.M., Makris S.L., Sette W.F., Mendez E., and Raffaele K.C. A qualitative retrospective analysis of positive control data in developmental neurotoxicity studies. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 26 (2004) 345-352
26. Crofton K.M., Foss J.A., Hass U., Jensen K., Levin E.D., and Parker S.L. Undertaking Positive control studies as part of developmental neurotoxicity testing (2006)
27. Dam K., Seidler F.J., and Slotkin T.A. Transcriptional biomarkers distinguish between vulnerable periods for developmental neurotoxicity of chlorpyrifos: Implications for toxicogenomics. Brain Res. Bull. 59 (2003) 261-265
28. Davis M. The mammalian startle response. In: Eaton R.C. (Ed). Neural Mechanism of Startle Behavior (1984), Plenum Press, New York 287-351
29. Davis M., and File S.E. Intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms of habituation and sensitization. In: Peek H.V.S., and Petrinovich L. (Eds). Habituation, Sensitization, and Behavior (1984), Academic Press, New York
30. Davis M., Gendelman D.S., Tischler M.D., and Gendelman P.M. A primary acoustic startle circuit: lesion and stimulation studies. J. Neurosci. 2 (1982) 791-805
31. Deschl U., Kittel B., Rittinghausen S., Morawietz G., Kohler M., Mohr U., and Keenan C. The value of historical control data-scientific advantages for pathologists, industry and agencies. Toxicol. Pathol. 30 (2002) 80-87
32. Doe J.E., Boobis A.R., Blacker A., Dellarco V.L., Doerrer N.G., Franklin C., Goodman J.I., Kronenberg J.M., Lewis R., McConnell E.E., Mercier T., Moretto A., Nolan C., Padilla S., Phang W., Solecki R., Tilbury L., van Ravenswaay B., and Wolf D.C. A tiered approach to systemic toxicity testing for agricultural chemical safety assessment. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. (2006)
33. Dorman D.C., Allen S.L., Byczkowski J.Z., Claudio L., Fisher Jr. J.E., Fisher J.W., Harry G.J., Li A.A., Makris S.L., Padilla S., Sultatos L.G., and Mileson B.E. Methods to identify and characterize developmental neurotoxicity for human health risk assessment. III: pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic considerations. Environ. Health Perspect. 109 Suppl 1 (2001) 101-111
34. Eaton D., and Klaassen C. Principles of toxicology. In: Casarett, and Doulls (Eds). Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons (2001), McGraw Hill 11-34
35. ECETOC. Evaluation of the neurotoxic potential of chemicals (Monograph No. 18) (1992), European Centre for Ecotoxicology and Toxicology of Chemicals
36. Eckerman D.A., and Bushnell P.J. The neurotoxicology of cognition: attention, learning, and memory. In: Tilson H.A., and Mitchell C.L. (Eds). Neurotoxicology (1992), Raven Press, New York 213-270
37. Ehman K.D., and Moser V.C. Evaluation of cognitive function in weanling rats: a review of methods suitable for chemical screening. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 28 (2006) 144-161
38. Eisenbrandt D.L., Allen S.L., Berry P.H., Classen W., Bury D., Mellert W., Millischer R.J., Schuh W., and Bontinck W.J. Evaluation of the neurotoxic potential of chemicals in animals. Food Chem. Toxicol. 32 (1994) 655-669
39. Eriksson P., and Talts U. Neonatal exposure to neurotoxic pesticides increases adult susceptibility: a review of current findings. Neurotoxicology 21 (2000) 37-47
40. Fechter L.D., and Young J.S. Reflexive measures. In: Annau Z. (Ed). Neurobehavioral Toxicology (1986), The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore
41. Fenner-Crisp P.A., Adams J., Balbus J., Bellinger D., Makris S.L., Marrs T.C., and Ray D. Application of developmental neurotoxicity testing to public health protection (2006)
42. File S.E. The ontogeny of exploration in the rat: habituation and effects of handling. Dev. Psychobiol. 11 (1978) 321-328
43. Gad S.C. Principles of screening in toxicology with special emphasis on application to neurotoxicology. J. Amer. Coll. Toxicol. 8 (1989) 21-27
44. Garman R.H., Fix A.S., Jortner B.S., Jensen K.F., Hardisty J.F., Claudio L., and Ferenc S. Methods to identify and characterize developmental neurotoxicity for human health risk assessment. II: neuropathology. Environ. Health Perspect. 109 Suppl 1 (2001) 93-100
45. Geyer M.A., Butcher R.E., and Fite K. A study of startle and locomotor activity in rats exposed prenatally to methylmercury. Neurobehav. Toxicol. Teratol. 7 (1985) 759-765
46. Greim H., Gelbke H.P., Reuter U., Thielmann H.W., and Edler L. Evaluation of historical control data in carcinogenicity studies. Human Exp. Toxicol. 22 (2003) 541-549
47. Hanley Jr. T.R., and Watanabe P.G. Measurement of solid feed consumption patterns in neonatal rats by 141Ce-radiolabeled microspheres. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 77 (1985) 496-500
48. Harrington M.E., and Coscina D.V. Early weight gain and behavioral responsivity as predictors of dietary obesity in rats. Physiol. Behav. 30 (1983) 763-770
49. Haseman J.K. Data analysis: statistical analysis and use of historical control data. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 21 (1995) 52-59
50. Hass U. The need for developmental neurotoxicity studies in risk assessment for developmental toxicity. Reprod. Toxicol. 22 (2006) 148-156
51. Hoffman H.S., and Fleshler M. An apparatus for the measurement of the startle-response in the rat. Am. J. Psychol. 77 (1964) 307-308
52. Hoffman H.S., and Ison J.R. Reflex modification in the domain of startle: I. Some empirical findings and their implications for how the nervous system processes sensory input. Psychol. Rev. 87 (1980) 175-189
53. Holson R.R., Freshwater L., Maurissen J.P., Moser V., and Phang W. Statistical Issues and Techniques Appropriate for Development Neurotoxicity (DNT) Testing (2006)
54. ILSI Risk Science Institute Expert Working Group. Principles and practices for direct dosing of pre-weaning mammals in toxicity testing and research (2003), ILSI Press, Washington
55. IPCS. Principles and Methods for the Assessment of Neurotoxicity Associated with Exposure to Chemicals. Environmental Health Criteria vol. 60 (1986), World Health Association
56. IPCS. Environmental health criteria 223: Neurotoxicity Risk Assessment for Human Health: Principles and Approaces (2001)
57. Ison J.R., and Hoffman H.S. Reflex modification in the domain of startle: II. The anomalous history of a robust and ubiquitous phenomenon. Psychol. Bull. 94 (1983) 3-17
58. Kaufmann W. Current status of developmental neurotoxicity: an industry perspective. Toxicol. Lett. 140-141 (2003) 161-169
59. Kimmel C.A., and Makris S.L. Recent developments in regulatory requirements for developmental toxicology. Toxicol. Lett. 120 (2001) 73-82
60. Koch M. The neurobiology of startle. Prog. Neurobiol. 59 (1999) 107-128
61. Kuhn C.M., and Mailman R. Developmental neurotoxicology. In: Abou-Donia M.B. (Ed). Neurotoxicology (1992), CRC Press, Boca Raton 293-319
62. Laughlin N.K. Environmental factors: modulators of development. Papers from a symposium sponsored by the neurobehavioral teratology society. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 22 (2000) 87-88
63. Leitner D.S., and Rosenberger M.C. A simple and inexpensive startle transducer with high output. Behav. Res. Meth. Instrum. 15 (1983)
64. Li A. Regulatory developomental neurotoxicology testing: data evaluation for risk assessment purposes. Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 19 (2005) 727-733
65. Lochry E.A. Concurrent use of behavioral/functional testing in existing reproductive and developmental toxicity screens: practical considerations. J. Amer. Coll. Toxicol. 6 (1987) 433-439
66. Lochry E.A., Johnson C., and Wier P.J. Behavioral evaluations in developmental toxicity testing: MARTA survey results. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 16 (1994) 55-63
67. MacPhail R.C. Observational batteries and motor activity. Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Mikrobiol. Hyg. [B] 185 (1987) 21-27
68. Mactutus C.F. The neurotoxicology of cognition: attention, learning, and memory. In: Chang L.W. (Ed). Principles of Neurotoxicology vol. 26 (1994), Marcel Dekker, New York 397-441
69. Maurissen J.P. Neurobehavior, methods for the evaluation of sensory functions. In: Chang L.W., and Slikker W. (Eds). Neurotoxicology: Approaches and Methods (1995), Academic Press, San Diego, CA 239-264
70. McCarthy M.M., Schlenker E.H., and Pfaff D.W. Enduring consequences of neonatal treatment with antisense oligodeoxynucleotides to estrogen receptor messenger ribonucleic acid on sexual differentiation of rat brain. Endocrinology 133 (1993) 433-439
71. McIlwain K.L., Merriweather M.Y., Yuva-Paylor L.A., and Paylor R. The use of behavioral test batteries: effects of training history. Physiol. Behav. 73 (2001) 705-717
72. Mendola P., Selevan S.G., Gutter S., and Rice D. Environmental factors associated with a spectrum of neurodevelopmental deficits. Ment. Retard. Dev. Disabil. Res. Rev. 8 (2002) 188-197
73. Mileson B.E., and Ferenc S.A. Methods to identify and characterize developmental neurotoxicity for human health risk assessment: overview. Environ. Health Perspect. 109 Suppl 1 (2001) 77-78
74. Mugford C.A., and Kedderis G.L. Sex-dependent metabolism of xenobiotics. Drug Metab. Rev. 30 (1998) 441-498
75. Muller K.E., and Benignus V.A. Increasing scientific power with statistical power. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 14 (1992) 211-219
76. Muller K.E., Barton C.N., and Benignus V.A. Recommendations for appropriate statistical practice in toxicologic experiments. Neurotoxicology 5 (1984) 113-125
77. National Research Council. Pesticides in the diets of infants and children (1993), National Academy Press, Washington, DC
78. Neurobehavioral Toxicity: Analysis and Interpretation (1994), Raven Press, New York
79. OECD. OECD Guideline for the Testing of Chemicals. Proposal for a New Guidelines vol. 426 (2003)
80. OECD. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Guidelines for the testing of chemicals Draft Proposal for a New Guideline 426, Developmental Neurotoxicity Study (2003)
81. Peele D.B., and Vincent A. Strategies for assessing learning and memory, 1978-1987: a comparison of behavioral toxicology, psychopharmacology, and neurobiology. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 13 (1989) 317-322
82. Prescott R.G.W. Some behavioural effects of variable which influence the 'general level of activity' of rats. Anim Behav. 19 (1970) 791-796
83. Pryce C.R., and Feldon J. Long-term neurobehavioural impact of the postnatal environment in rats: manipulations, effects and mediating mechanisms. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 27 (2003) 57-71
84. Raffaele K.C., Sette W., Makris S.L., Moser V., and Crofton K.M. Motor activity in developmental neurotoxicity testing: A cross-laboratory comparison of control data (2003), Society of Toxicology, Salt Lake City, UT
85. Raffaele K.C., Gilbert M.E., and Crofton S. Learning and memory tests in developmental neurotoxicity testing: A cross-laboratory comparision of control data (2004), Society of Toxicology, Baltimore, MD
86. Raffaele K.C., Sette W., Doherty J.D., Makris S.L., and Crofton K.M. Neuropathological findings in developmental neurotoxicity testing: comparison of qualitative and quantitative evaluations. Toxicologist 84 (2005) 200
87. Raffaele K.C., Fisher E., Hancock S., Hazelden K.P., and Sobrian S. Determining normal variability in a developmental neurotoxicity test (2006)
88. Raffaele K.C., Gilbert M.E., Crofton K.M., Mendez E., Doherty J.D., Schumacher W., Sette W., and Makris S.L. Evaluation of learning and memory in developmental neurotoxicity studies: comparisonof single-choice water maze across laboratories. The Toxicologist 90 1 (2006) 291 (Abstract No. 1425)
89. Ray D.E. Function in neurotoxicity: index of effect and also determinant of vulnerability. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol 24 (1997) 857-860
90. Ray D.E. Physiological factors predisposing to neurotoxicity. Arch. Toxicol., Suppl. 19 (1997) 219-226
91. Reiter L.W., and MacPhail R.C. Motor activity: a survey of methods with potential use in toxicity testing. Neurobehav. Toxicol. 1 Suppl 1 (1979) 53-66
92. Reiter L.W., and MacPhail R.C. Factors influencing motor activity measures in neurotoxicology. In: Mitchell C.L. (Ed). Nervous System Toxicology (1982), Raven Press, New York 45-65
93. Rice D., and S Jr. B. Critical periods of vulnerability for the developing nervous system: evidence from humans and animal models. Environ. Health Perspect. 108 Suppl 3 (2000) 511-533
94. Richter C.P. A behavioristic study of the activity of the rat. Comp. Psychol. Monogr. (1922) 1-55
95. Roberts A.D., Moore C.F., DeJesus O.T., Barnhart T.E., Larson J.A., Mukherjee J., Nickles R.J., Schueller M.J., Shelton S.E., and Schneider M.L. Prenatal stress, moderate fetal alcohol, and dopamine system function in rhesus monkeys. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 26 (2004) 169-178
96. Rodier P.M. Chronology of neuron development: animal studies and their clinical implications. Dev. Med. Child Neurol. 22 (1980) 525-545
97. Rodier P.M. Vulnerable periods and processes during central nervous system development. Environ. Health Perspect. 102 Suppl 2 (1994) 121-124
98. Rodier P.M. Developing brain as a target of toxicity. Environ Health Perspect. 103 Suppl 6 (1995) 73-76
99. Ross E., and Kenakin T. Pharmacodynamics: mechanisms of drug action and the relationship between drug concentration and effect. In: Hardman J., Limbira L., and Gilman A. (Eds). Goodman and Gillman's The Pharmaceutical Basis of Therapeutics (2001), McGraw Hill 31-44
100. Ross J.F., Mattsson J.L., and Fix A.S. Expanded clinical observations in toxicity studies: historical perspectives and contemporary issues. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 28 (1998) 17-26
101. Ruppert P.H., Dean K.F., and Reiter L.W. Development of locomotor activity of rat pups in figure-eight mazes. Dev. Psychobiol. 18 (1985) 247-260
102. Sheets L.P., Dean K.F., and Reiter L.W. Ontogeny of the acoustic startle response and sensitization to background noise in the rat. Behav. Neurosci. 102 (1988) 706-713
103. Shnerson A., and Willott J.F. Ontogeny of the acoustic startle response in C57BL/6J mouse pups. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 94 (1980) 36-40
104. Simar M.R. Perinatal Exposure to CNS-Active Medications: Neurodevelopmental Risks. CNS Drugs 12 (1999) 451-470
105. Slikker Jr. W. Biomarkers of neurotoxicity: an overview. Biomed. Environ. Sci. 4 (1991) 192-196
106. Slikker Jr. W., Beck B.D., Cory-Slechta D.A., Paule M.G., Anger W.K., and Bellinger D. Cognitive tests: interpretation for neurotoxicity? (Workshop summary). Toxicol. Sci. 58 (2000) 222-234
107. Slikker Jr. W., Scallet A.C., Doerge D.R., and Ferguson S.A. Gender-based differences in rats after chronic dietary exposure to genistein. Int. J. Toxicol. 20 (2001) 175-179
108. Slikker Jr. W., Acuff K., Boyes W.K., Chelonis J., Crofton K.M., Dearlove G.E., Li A., Moser V.C., Newland C., Rossi J., Schantz S., Sette W., Sheets L., Stanton M., Tyl S., and Sobotka T.J. Behavioral test methods workshop. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 27 (2005) 417-427
109. Spencer P.J., Mattsson J.L., Johnson K.A., and Albee R.R. Neurotoxicity screening methods are sensitive to experimental history. Int. J. Psychophysiol. 14 (1993) 5-19
110. Stein J., Schettler T., Wallinga D., and Valenti M. In harm's way: toxic threats to child development. J. Dev. Behav. Pediatr. 23 (2002) S13-S22
111. Tachibana T. Effect of sample size on reproducibility of behavioral teratological study results: a computer simulation experiment using data from the collaborative behavioral teratology study of the national center for toxicological research. Teratology 42 (1990) 207-214
112. Tapp J.T., Zimmerman R.S., and D'Encarnacao P.S. Inter-correlational analysis of some common measures of rat activity. Psychol. Rep. 23 (1968) 1047-1050
113. Tilson H.A. Developmental neurotoxicology of endocrine disruptors and pesticides: identification of information gaps and research needs. Environ. Health Perspect. 106 Suppl 3 (1998) 807-811
114. Tilson H.A., and Kodavanti P.R. The neurotoxicity of polychlorinated biphenyls. Neurotoxicology 19 (1998) 517-525
115. Tilson H.A., MacPhail R.C., and Crofton K.M. Defining neurotoxicity in a decision-making context. Neurotoxicology 16 (1995) 363-375
116. Tilson H.A., MacPhail R.C., and Crofton K.M. Setting exposure standards: a decision process. Environ. Health Perspect. 104 Suppl 2 (1996) 401-405
117. Tilson H.A., Kodavanti P.R., Mundy W.R., and Bushnell P.J. Neurotoxicity of environmental chemicals and their mechanism of action. Toxicol. Lett. 102-103 (1998) 631-635
118. Tyl R.W., and Sette W.F. Workshop on the qualitative and quantitative comparability of human and animal developmental neurotoxicity, Work Group III report: weight of evidence and quantitative evaluation of developmental neurotoxicity data. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 12 (1990) 275-280
119. U.S.EPA. Revised neurotoxicity test guidelines for pesticides (1991), National Technical Information Service, Washington, DC
120. U.S.EPA. Guidelines for Neurotoxicity Risk Assessment (1998)
121. U.S.EPA. Health Effects Guidelines OPPTS 870.6300 Developmental Neurotoxicity Study (1998)
122. U.S.EPA. Office of Inspector General, Opportunities to Improve Data quality and Children's Health Through the Food Quality Protections Act (2006)
123. Valentinuzzi V.S., Buxton O.M., Chang A.M., Scarbrough K., Ferrari E.A., Takahashi J.S., and Turek F.W. Locomotor response to an open field during C57BL/6J active and inactive phases: differences dependent on conditions of illumination. Physiol. Behav. 69 (2000) 269-275
124. Vorhees C.V. Sample size determinations using examples drawn from the NCTR collaborative behavioral teratology study data. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 11 (1989) 381-383
125. Vorhees C. Behavioral and functional ontogeny: biomarkers of neurotoxicity. In: Chang L.W. (Ed). Principles of Neurotoxicology (1994), Library of Congress, New York 733-763
126. Watzman N., Barry III H., Kinnard Jr. W.J., and Buckley J.P. Influence of chlorpromazine on spontaneous activity of mice under various parametric conditions. Arch. Int. Pharmacodyn. Ther. 165 (1967) 352-368
127. White E.H., and Horlington M. An apparatus for measuring startle response and motor activity in rats. Med. Biol. Eng. 7 (1969) 325-327
128. WHO. Chemical-specific adjustment factors for interspecies differences and human variability: guidance document for use of data in dose/concentration-response assessment (2005), WHO, Geneva, Switzerland
129. Wilson C., and Groves P.M. Measurement of acoustic startle response in mice. Behav. Res. Meth. Instrum. 4 (1972) 13-14
130. Wise L.D., Gordon L.R., Soper K.A., Duchai D.M., and Morrissey R.E. Developmental neurotoxicity evaluation of acrylamide in Sprague-Dawley rats. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 17 (1995) 189-198
131. Wise L.D., Allen H.L., Hoe C.M., Verbeke D.R., and Gerson R.J. Developmental neurotoxicity evaluation of the avermectin pesticide, emamectin benzoate, in Sprague-Dawley rats. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 19 (1997) 315-326
132. Zbinden G., Elsner J., and Boelsterli U.A. Toxicological screening. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 4 (1984) 275-286